Explaining the Rise in Prime Age Women’s Employment
Explaining the Rise in Prime Age Women’s Employment The economic costs of the COVID-19 pandemic were widely expected to fall disproportionally on women. Instead, the employment rate of prime age women recovered faster than men’s and rose to its highest point in U.S. history in 2023. We show that the resilience of women’s employment is driven by two long-term trends that predate the pandemic and continued through it: 1) the growing share of women who are college graduates, and 2) the rising labor force participation of college-educated mothers with young children.The economic costs of the COVID-19 pandemic were widely expected to fall disproportionally on women. Instead, the employment rate of prime age women recovered faster than men’s and rose to its highest point in U.S. history in 2023. We show that the resilience of women’s employment is driven by two long-term trends that predate the pandemic and continued through it: 1) the growing share of women who are college graduates, and 2) the rising labor force participation of college-educated mothers with young children.2023-11-27T00:00:00.000Z
Explaining the Rise in Prime Age Women’s Employment
Explaining the Rise in Prime Age Women’s Employment
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This analysis was produced by Alex Arnon, Aidan O'Connell, Jesús Villero, and Youran Wu. Mariko Paulson prepared the brief for the website.
The economic costs of the COVID-19 pandemic were widely expected to fall disproportionally on women. Instead, the employment rate of prime age women recovered faster than men’s and rose to its highest point in U.S. history in 2023. We show that the resilience of women’s employment is driven by two long-term trends that predate the pandemic and continued through it: 1) the growing share of women who are college graduates, and 2) the rising labor force participation of college-educated mothers with young children.
Key Points
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The share of prime age women employed reached an all-time high of 75.3 percent over the last few months. This is almost one percentage point higher than its previous peaks in the spring of 2000 and just before the pandemic, and 6 percentage points higher than a decade ago.
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One reason for the high level of women’s employment is increased educational attainment. Over the last two decades, the share of prime age women with a college degree rose from below 30 percent to more than 45 percent. Since college graduates are more likely to work, this raised the overall employment rate of prime age women, adding 2.7 percentage points since 2000.
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Another reason is that college-educated mothers of young children are more likely to be employed. The share of college graduates with a child under 10 who worked rose 10 percentage points from the early 2000s to 2023. Over the same period, the share who did not work because of family care responsibilities fell by 10 percentage points. These changes were largest for mothers of infants and toddlers and were only briefly interrupted by the pandemic.
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The child penalty – which measures the impact of having children on women’s employment relative to men’s – shrunk in the 1980s and 1990s for all women but diverged after 2000 for women with different levels of educational attainment. The penalty continued falling for mothers with a college degree but stalled for mothers who did not go to college.
Introduction
Earlier this year, the employment rate of prime working age women reached an all-time high, passing 75 percent for the first time in U.S. history. Defying widespread expectations that the COVID-19 pandemic would disproportionately harm the economic prospects of women, they have recovered faster than men and played a dominant role in the overall labor market recovery.
In a forthcoming working paper, we review the evolution of prime age women’s employment over the last few decades and explain its recent rise. This brief summarizes and previews some of the findings from that ongoing work. We show that the current employment highs are a product of two long-term trends that predate the pandemic: 1) the rising share of women who are college graduates, and 2) a shrinking child penalty for college-educated mothers, who are increasingly likely to remain in the workforce after having a child.
Despite the severe disruptions to labor markets, schooling, and childcare caused by the pandemic, these trends continued and even accelerated after 2020. In the full working paper, we link their resilience to the grand gender convergence in labor market outcomes, drawing on the work of Claudia Goldin, who was recently awarded the 2023 Nobel Prize in economics. We present additional evidence from changes in the occupational mix of women’s employment, discuss the impact of parental leave, and study the dynamics of child penalties in detail.
Background: Prime Age Women’s Employment Since 1950
The entry of women into the workforce revolutionized the labor market in the second half of the 20th century but then stalled for two decades after 2000. Figure 1 plots the employment rate (also called the employment-population ratio) of prime age women over the past 75 years.1 Between 1950 and 2000, the share of women ages 25 to 54 who worked rose from one third to nearly three quarters. The gap in employment rates between men and women closed from 60 percentage points in 1950 to 15 in 2000, and by the end of the century women made up nearly half of the workforce.
Figure 1. Employment Rate of Prime Age Women
Date,Men,Women 1950-01-01,91.2,33.8 1950-02-01,91.2,33.8 1950-03-01,91.2,34 1950-04-01,91.8,34.9 1950-05-01,92.4,34.7 1950-06-01,92.8,35.6 1950-07-01,92.7,35.1 1950-08-01,93.2,36 1950-09-01,93.8,35.1 1950-10-01,93.7,35.7 1950-11-01,93.9,35.7 1950-12-01,93.5,35.6 1951-01-01,94.4,35.9 1951-02-01,94.7,35.7 1951-03-01,95.2,36 1951-04-01,95.1,36 1951-05-01,94.8,36.6 1951-06-01,94.5,35.6 1951-07-01,94.5,37.4 1951-08-01,94.4,37 1951-09-01,94.4,36.7 1951-10-01,94.7,37.2 1951-11-01,94.6,37 1951-12-01,95,37.4 1952-01-01,95.1,37.4 1952-02-01,95.3,37.6 1952-03-01,95.5,37.4 1952-04-01,95.4,37 1952-05-01,95.3,37.3 1952-06-01,95,37.3 1952-07-01,95,36.8 1952-08-01,94.6,36.8 1952-09-01,95.1,37.8 1952-10-01,95.1,36.7 1952-11-01,95.1,37.5 1952-12-01,95.7,37.6 1953-01-01,95.5,37.9 1953-02-01,95.9,37.6 1953-03-01,96,38 1953-04-01,95.3,37.6 1953-05-01,95.1,36.6 1953-06-01,95.5,37.1 1953-07-01,95.7,37.1 1953-08-01,95.9,36.5 1953-09-01,95.3,36.8 1953-10-01,94.8,37.3 1953-11-01,94.9,37.6 1953-12-01,94.2,36.8 1954-01-01,93.7,36.5 1954-02-01,93.5,37.5 1954-03-01,92.8,37.1 1954-04-01,92.9,36.9 1954-05-01,92.8,36.5 1954-06-01,93,36.2 1954-07-01,92.8,36 1954-08-01,92.8,35.9 1954-09-01,92.8,36.4 1954-10-01,92.8,36.3 1954-11-01,93.3,36.7 1954-12-01,93.5,36.5 1955-01-01,93.9,37.1 1955-02-01,93.7,37.1 1955-03-01,93.8,37 1955-04-01,93.6,37.8 1955-05-01,94.4,37.5 1955-06-01,94.5,37.9 1955-07-01,94.7,38.6 1955-08-01,94.6,38.9 1955-09-01,94.6,38.7 1955-10-01,94.6,38.5 1955-11-01,94.6,38.6 1955-12-01,94.8,39 1956-01-01,94.9,39.4 1956-02-01,94.7,38.8 1956-03-01,94.6,38.7 1956-04-01,95,38.8 1956-05-01,94.3,39.5 1956-06-01,94.3,39.5 1956-07-01,94.1,39.3 1956-08-01,94.4,39.5 1956-09-01,94.2,39.8 1956-10-01,94.2,39.6 1956-11-01,94.2,39.4 1956-12-01,94.2,39.4 1957-01-01,94.3,39 1957-02-01,94.6,39.7 1957-03-01,95.1,39.6 1957-04-01,94.6,39.7 1957-05-01,94.6,39.6 1957-06-01,94.4,39.7 1957-07-01,94.3,40.3 1957-08-01,94.2,39.7 1957-09-01,93.8,40 1957-10-01,93.5,40.3 1957-11-01,93.1,40.1 1957-12-01,92.7,40.2 1958-01-01,92.2,39.7 1958-02-01,91.4,39.2 1958-03-01,91.2,39.3 1958-04-01,90.9,39.3 1958-05-01,91.2,39.3 1958-06-01,91.1,39.2 1958-07-01,91.2,39.4 1958-08-01,91.5,39.8 1958-09-01,92,39.4 1958-10-01,92.4,39.5 1958-11-01,92.3,39.7 1958-12-01,92.4,39.8 1959-01-01,92.4,40.1 1959-02-01,92.2,40 1959-03-01,93.1,40.1 1959-04-01,93.5,40.3 1959-05-01,93.5,40.3 1959-06-01,93.4,40.6 1959-07-01,93.5,40.3 1959-08-01,93.1,40.1 1959-09-01,92.8,40 1959-10-01,92.9,40.2 1959-11-01,92.3,40.2 1959-12-01,93.5,40.4 1960-01-01,93.4,40.2 1960-02-01,93.6,40.2 1960-03-01,92.7,39.9 1960-04-01,93.2,40.9 1960-05-01,93.4,41 1960-06-01,93.1,41.2 1960-07-01,92.8,41.2 1960-08-01,92.8,41.2 1960-09-01,93,41.4 1960-10-01,92.6,40.4 1960-11-01,92.5,40.9 1960-12-01,92,40.4 1961-01-01,91.7,40.7 1961-02-01,91.3,40.5 1961-03-01,91.7,41 1961-04-01,91.9,40.7 1961-05-01,91.6,40.8 1961-06-01,92,41.2 1961-07-01,92,40.5 1961-08-01,92,40.4 1961-09-01,92.3,40.2 1961-10-01,92.5,40.7 1961-11-01,92.5,40.5 1961-12-01,92.5,40.5 1962-01-01,92.5,41 1962-02-01,92.8,41.3 1962-03-01,92.8,41.1 1962-04-01,92.7,40.9 1962-05-01,93.2,41 1962-06-01,92.9,41 1962-07-01,92.9,41 1962-08-01,93.1,41.6 1962-09-01,93,41.7 1962-10-01,93.3,41.2 1962-11-01,93.1,41.1 1962-12-01,93.1,41.1 1963-01-01,92.8,41.3 1963-02-01,92.5,41.6 1963-03-01,92.9,41.7 1963-04-01,92.9,42.1 1963-05-01,92.9,42 1963-06-01,93.2,41.8 1963-07-01,93.4,41.7 1963-08-01,93.2,41.6 1963-09-01,93.4,41.8 1963-10-01,93.3,42.2 1963-11-01,93.1,42.3 1963-12-01,93.4,42.1 1964-01-01,93.4,41.9 1964-02-01,93.6,42 1964-03-01,93.6,42 1964-04-01,93.8,42.5 1964-05-01,94,42.9 1964-06-01,93.6,42.7 1964-07-01,93.9,42.3 1964-08-01,93.7,42.6 1964-09-01,93.8,42.1 1964-10-01,93.6,42.1 1964-11-01,93.8,42.1 1964-12-01,93.6,42.6 1965-01-01,93.8,42.9 1965-02-01,93.6,42.7 1965-03-01,93.9,42.8 1965-04-01,94,42.9 1965-05-01,94.1,43.1 1965-06-01,94.3,43.6 1965-07-01,94.2,43.6 1965-08-01,94.2,43.7 1965-09-01,94.2,43.2 1965-10-01,94.3,43.4 1965-11-01,94.5,43.4 1965-12-01,94.4,43.8 1966-01-01,94.5,43.9 1966-02-01,94.5,43.8 1966-03-01,94.6,43.8 1966-04-01,94.7,43.9 1966-05-01,94.8,44.1 1966-06-01,94.5,44.3 1966-07-01,94.3,44.4 1966-08-01,94.5,44.6 1966-09-01,94.6,45.2 1966-10-01,94.7,45.2 1966-11-01,94.7,45.5 1966-12-01,94.7,45.2 1967-01-01,95,44.7 1967-02-01,94.7,44.8 1967-03-01,94.7,44.7 1967-04-01,94.9,45 1967-05-01,94.8,45 1967-06-01,94.7,45 1967-07-01,94.9,45.4 1967-08-01,94.7,45.8 1967-09-01,94.6,45.9 1967-10-01,94.7,46 1967-11-01,94.6,45.8 1967-12-01,94.7,46.2 1968-01-01,94.5,45.4 1968-02-01,94.6,45.9 1968-03-01,94.6,46.1 1968-04-01,94.8,46 1968-05-01,94.8,46.7 1968-06-01,94.9,46.7 1968-07-01,94.8,46.2 1968-08-01,94.8,46.1 1968-09-01,94.6,46.5 1968-10-01,94.6,46.4 1968-11-01,94.5,46.7 1968-12-01,94.8,46.6 1969-01-01,94.9,46.6 1969-02-01,95,47 1969-03-01,94.7,46.9 1969-04-01,94.5,46.9 1969-05-01,94.5,47.1 1969-06-01,94.5,47.2 1969-07-01,94.4,47.4 1969-08-01,94.6,47.6 1969-09-01,94.3,47.8 1969-10-01,94.3,47.9 1969-11-01,94.2,47.8 1969-12-01,94.1,48.2 1970-01-01,94,48.2 1970-02-01,93.8,48 1970-03-01,93.8,47.9 1970-04-01,93.6,48.3 1970-05-01,93.4,47.6 1970-06-01,93.2,47.9 1970-07-01,93,48 1970-08-01,92.9,47.9 1970-09-01,92.9,47.3 1970-10-01,92.7,47.6 1970-11-01,92.6,47.6 1970-12-01,92.2,47.5 1971-01-01,92.2,47.8 1971-02-01,92.3,47.7 1971-03-01,92.1,47.4 1971-04-01,92.2,47.2 1971-05-01,92.3,47.6 1971-06-01,92.3,47.6 1971-07-01,92.2,47.2 1971-08-01,92,47.5 1971-09-01,92,47.7 1971-10-01,91.9,47.8 1971-11-01,91.9,48.1 1971-12-01,91.6,48.1 1972-01-01,91.8,48.4 1972-02-01,92,48.5 1972-03-01,92.3,48.7 1972-04-01,92.2,48.4 1972-05-01,92.1,48.5 1972-06-01,92.2,48.4 1972-07-01,92.3,48.4 1972-08-01,92.2,48.6 1972-09-01,92.1,48.6 1972-10-01,92,48.5 1972-11-01,92.2,48.6 1972-12-01,92.4,49 1973-01-01,92.3,48.8 1973-02-01,92.4,49.4 1973-03-01,92.5,49.5 1973-04-01,92.4,49.8 1973-05-01,92.4,49.9 1973-06-01,92.5,50.1 1973-07-01,92.8,50.2 1973-08-01,92.5,50.1 1973-09-01,92.6,50.3 1973-10-01,92.8,50.6 1973-11-01,92.7,50.8 1973-12-01,92.6,50.7 1974-01-01,92.9,50.7 1974-02-01,92.6,50.9 1974-03-01,92.4,50.9 1974-04-01,91.7,51.1 1974-05-01,92.2,51.2 1974-06-01,92.1,51.5 1974-07-01,91.8,52 1974-08-01,91.8,51.5 1974-09-01,91.6,51.4 1974-10-01,91.3,51.4 1974-11-01,91.1,51 1974-12-01,90.4,50.9 1975-01-01,89.4,50.7 1975-02-01,89,50.4 1975-03-01,88.9,50.5 1975-04-01,88.8,50.5 1975-05-01,88.8,50.4 1975-06-01,88.8,50.7 1975-07-01,89,51 1975-08-01,89.2,51.3 1975-09-01,89,51.3 1975-10-01,89.2,51.6 1975-11-01,89.1,51.5 1975-12-01,89,51.6 1976-01-01,89.3,52.2 1976-02-01,89.3,52.2 1976-03-01,89.6,52.4 1976-04-01,89.7,52.7 1976-05-01,89.8,52.7 1976-06-01,89.4,53.1 1976-07-01,89.5,53 1976-08-01,89.6,53.2 1976-09-01,89.6,53.1 1976-10-01,89.7,53.2 1976-11-01,89.4,53.5 1976-12-01,89.3,53.7 1977-01-01,89.3,53.8 1977-02-01,89.5,53.8 1977-03-01,89.8,54.1 1977-04-01,90,54.4 1977-05-01,90,54.8 1977-06-01,90.2,54.7 1977-07-01,90.1,54.9 1977-08-01,90.2,54.8 1977-09-01,90.4,55.1 1977-10-01,90.3,55.3 1977-11-01,90.7,55.6 1977-12-01,91,55.8 1978-01-01,91.1,56.1 1978-02-01,91,56.5 1978-03-01,90.9,56.7 1978-04-01,91.1,57 1978-05-01,91,56.8 1978-06-01,91.1,57.1 1978-07-01,91.1,57.1 1978-08-01,90.7,57.2 1978-09-01,91,57.8 1978-10-01,90.8,58.4 1978-11-01,91.2,58.2 1978-12-01,91.1,58.2 1979-01-01,91.3,58.1 1979-02-01,91.5,58.3 1979-03-01,91.5,58.4 1979-04-01,91.1,58.3 1979-05-01,91.3,58.5 1979-06-01,91.3,58.5 1979-07-01,91.4,59.3 1979-08-01,91,59.4 1979-09-01,91.1,59.7 1979-10-01,90.8,59.8 1979-11-01,90.6,59.7 1979-12-01,90.9,60.3 1980-01-01,90.8,60.4 1980-02-01,90.6,60.3 1980-03-01,90.1,60.3 1980-04-01,89.5,60.4 1980-05-01,89.1,60 1980-06-01,89,59.9 1980-07-01,88.8,59.8 1980-08-01,88.7,59.9 1980-09-01,88.9,60.1 1980-10-01,89,60 1980-11-01,89.1,60.2 1980-12-01,89.1,60.4 1981-01-01,89.2,60.6 1981-02-01,89,61 1981-03-01,89.4,61.2 1981-04-01,89.7,61.4 1981-05-01,89.7,61.4 1981-06-01,89.2,61.2 1981-07-01,89.2,61.3 1981-08-01,89.1,61.2 1981-09-01,88.9,60.8 1981-10-01,88.5,61.3 1981-11-01,88.3,61.4 1981-12-01,87.6,61.2 1982-01-01,87.5,61.3 1982-02-01,87.6,61.4 1982-03-01,87.2,61.1 1982-04-01,87.2,61 1982-05-01,87.2,61.2 1982-06-01,86.7,61.4 1982-07-01,86.4,61.5 1982-08-01,86.4,61.5 1982-09-01,85.9,61.2 1982-10-01,85.7,61.1 1982-11-01,85.4,60.9 1982-12-01,85.2,61 1983-01-01,85.1,61.2 1983-02-01,84.9,61 1983-03-01,85.2,61.1 1983-04-01,85.5,61.5 1983-05-01,85.6,61.3 1983-06-01,86,61.7 1983-07-01,86.4,62 1983-08-01,86.5,62.5 1983-09-01,86.6,62.8 1983-10-01,86.8,62.7 1983-11-01,87.1,63 1983-12-01,87.5,62.9 1984-01-01,87.6,62.9 1984-02-01,87.8,63.2 1984-03-01,88,63.4 1984-04-01,88,63.7 1984-05-01,88.2,64.4 1984-06-01,88.6,64.3 1984-07-01,88.6,64.2 1984-08-01,88.7,64.3 1984-09-01,88.7,64 1984-10-01,88.7,64.2 1984-11-01,88.7,64.2 1984-12-01,88.7,64.5 1985-01-01,88.6,64.8 1985-02-01,88.7,64.9 1985-03-01,88.7,65.2 1985-04-01,88.6,65.2 1985-05-01,88.8,64.8 1985-06-01,88.4,65.1 1985-07-01,88.6,65 1985-08-01,88.7,65.3 1985-09-01,88.8,65.7 1985-10-01,88.9,65.7 1985-11-01,88.8,65.9 1985-12-01,88.7,66.1 1986-01-01,89,66.2 1986-02-01,88.4,65.8 1986-03-01,88.5,66 1986-04-01,88.5,66.1 1986-05-01,88.3,66.2 1986-06-01,88.4,66.5 1986-07-01,88.4,66.8 1986-08-01,88.6,66.9 1986-09-01,88.6,67.1 1986-10-01,88.3,67.4 1986-11-01,88.5,67.1 1986-12-01,88.8,67.4 1987-01-01,88.7,67.2 1987-02-01,88.7,67.5 1987-03-01,88.8,67.7 1987-04-01,88.9,68.1 1987-05-01,89,68.4 1987-06-01,88.9,68.3 1987-07-01,89,68.4 1987-08-01,89,68.5 1987-09-01,89.2,68.6 1987-10-01,89.1,68.6 1987-11-01,89.3,68.7 1987-12-01,89.3,68.8 1988-01-01,89.4,68.7 1988-02-01,89.5,68.7 1988-03-01,89.4,69.2 1988-04-01,89.8,69.1 1988-05-01,89.5,69.1 1988-06-01,89.3,69.1 1988-07-01,89.6,69.2 1988-08-01,89.4,69.4 1988-09-01,89.5,69.4 1988-10-01,89.5,69.7 1988-11-01,89.5,70.1 1988-12-01,89.4,70.2 1989-01-01,89.9,70.5 1989-02-01,89.8,70.4 1989-03-01,89.9,70.2 1989-04-01,89.7,70.3 1989-05-01,89.8,70.1 1989-06-01,90,70.1 1989-07-01,89.9,70 1989-08-01,90,70.2 1989-09-01,89.7,70.7 1989-10-01,89.8,70.5 1989-11-01,89.9,70.8 1989-12-01,90,70.7 1990-01-01,89.9,70.9 1990-02-01,90.1,70.8 1990-03-01,89.8,70.8 1990-04-01,89.4,70.7 1990-05-01,89.3,70.8 1990-06-01,89.3,70.6 1990-07-01,89,70.6 1990-08-01,88.9,70.5 1990-09-01,88.7,70.5 1990-10-01,88.6,70.4 1990-11-01,88.5,70.2 1990-12-01,88.1,70.1 1991-01-01,88.2,69.9 1991-02-01,88,70.1 1991-03-01,87.7,70 1991-04-01,87.9,70.3 1991-05-01,87.4,70.1 1991-06-01,87.5,70.2 1991-07-01,87.5,70.1 1991-08-01,87.4,70 1991-09-01,87.5,70.1 1991-10-01,87.2,70 1991-11-01,87.1,70 1991-12-01,86.9,69.9 1992-01-01,86.9,70.1 1992-02-01,86.6,70 1992-03-01,86.8,70 1992-04-01,86.9,70.2 1992-05-01,86.8,70.3 1992-06-01,86.9,70.3 1992-07-01,86.9,70.2 1992-08-01,86.9,70.2 1992-09-01,86.8,70.1 1992-10-01,86.7,70 1992-11-01,86.6,70.1 1992-12-01,86.7,69.9 1993-01-01,86.8,69.9 1993-02-01,86.7,69.9 1993-03-01,86.5,70.3 1993-04-01,86.8,69.9 1993-05-01,87,70.2 1993-06-01,87.1,70.4 1993-07-01,87.1,70.4 1993-08-01,87.2,70.6 1993-09-01,87.1,70.5 1993-10-01,87.1,70.5 1993-11-01,87.5,70.7 1993-12-01,87.4,71 1994-01-01,87.1,71 1994-02-01,86.8,71.3 1994-03-01,87,71.1 1994-04-01,87.1,71.2 1994-05-01,87.3,71.3 1994-06-01,87,70.9 1994-07-01,87,71.4 1994-08-01,87,71.7 1994-09-01,87.4,72.1 1994-10-01,87.5,71.9 1994-11-01,87.9,72 1994-12-01,88,71.8 1995-01-01,87.9,71.8 1995-02-01,88.1,72.2 1995-03-01,87.9,72.1 1995-04-01,87.7,72.2 1995-05-01,87.6,72.1 1995-06-01,87.6,71.7 1995-07-01,87.5,72.2 1995-08-01,87.4,72.1 1995-09-01,87.6,72.3 1995-10-01,87.6,72.3 1995-11-01,87.2,72.6 1995-12-01,87.2,72.4 1996-01-01,87.5,72.4 1996-02-01,87.7,72.4 1996-03-01,87.5,72.6 1996-04-01,87.5,72.6 1996-05-01,87.6,72.5 1996-06-01,87.8,72.7 1996-07-01,88.1,72.9 1996-08-01,88.4,73 1996-09-01,88.1,73 1996-10-01,88.3,73.1 1996-11-01,88.2,73 1996-12-01,88.3,73 1997-01-01,88.2,73.2 1997-02-01,88.2,72.9 1997-03-01,88.2,73.3 1997-04-01,88.1,73.5 1997-05-01,88.1,73.3 1997-06-01,88.4,73.6 1997-07-01,88.6,73.9 1997-08-01,88.7,74.1 1997-09-01,88.6,73.9 1997-10-01,88.6,73.8 1997-11-01,88.7,73.6 1997-12-01,88.6,73.6 1998-01-01,88.8,73.4 1998-02-01,88.9,73.4 1998-03-01,88.8,73.5 1998-04-01,88.9,73.5 1998-05-01,88.8,73.4 1998-06-01,88.7,73.6 1998-07-01,88.7,73.8 1998-08-01,88.8,73.9 1998-09-01,88.8,74 1998-10-01,88.8,73.7 1998-11-01,89.1,73.7 1998-12-01,88.9,74 1999-01-01,89.7,74.3 1999-02-01,89.2,74.1 1999-03-01,89.2,73.8 1999-04-01,89.1,73.8 1999-05-01,88.9,74.1 1999-06-01,88.8,74.2 1999-07-01,88.8,73.8 1999-08-01,88.7,74.1 1999-09-01,88.6,74.3 1999-10-01,88.7,74.5 1999-11-01,89,74.5 1999-12-01,89,74.3 2000-01-01,89.5,74.4 2000-02-01,89.4,74.5 2000-03-01,89.3,74.5 2000-04-01,89.2,74.9 2000-05-01,89,74.4 2000-06-01,89.1,74.2 2000-07-01,88.9,73.9 2000-08-01,88.9,73.6 2000-09-01,88.6,73.9 2000-10-01,88.6,73.9 2000-11-01,88.8,74.1 2000-12-01,88.9,74.1 2001-01-01,88.9,74.2 2001-02-01,88.8,74.2 2001-03-01,88.5,74.3 2001-04-01,88.3,73.7 2001-05-01,88.3,73.7 2001-06-01,88.1,73.4 2001-07-01,87.9,73.4 2001-08-01,87.6,73.2 2001-09-01,87.6,73.1 2001-10-01,87.4,72.7 2001-11-01,87,72.6 2001-12-01,87.1,72.6 2002-01-01,86.8,72.5 2002-02-01,87.1,72.7 2002-03-01,87,72.5 2002-04-01,86.8,72.5 2002-05-01,86.9,72.2 2002-06-01,86.5,72.1 2002-07-01,86.5,71.9 2002-08-01,86.8,72.1 2002-09-01,86.8,72.2 2002-10-01,86.6,72.1 2002-11-01,85.9,71.9 2002-12-01,86,72.2 2003-01-01,85.6,72.4 2003-02-01,85.9,72.1 2003-03-01,85.8,72.4 2003-04-01,85.9,72.4 2003-05-01,85.7,72.2 2003-06-01,85.8,72.3 2003-07-01,85.8,71.9 2003-08-01,85.7,72 2003-09-01,85.9,71.6 2003-10-01,85.9,71.6 2003-11-01,86,71.7 2003-12-01,86.4,71.4 2004-01-01,86.4,71.6 2004-02-01,86.2,71.7 2004-03-01,86,71.8 2004-04-01,86.2,71.8 2004-05-01,86.3,71.9 2004-06-01,86.5,71.9 2004-07-01,86.7,71.9 2004-08-01,86.5,71.8 2004-09-01,86.4,71.9 2004-10-01,86.3,71.9 2004-11-01,86.5,72 2004-12-01,86.2,71.8 2005-01-01,86.5,72 2005-02-01,86.7,71.9 2005-03-01,86.8,71.8 2005-04-01,87,72 2005-05-01,87.1,72.1 2005-06-01,87,71.7 2005-07-01,87,71.9 2005-08-01,87.4,72.1 2005-09-01,87,72.1 2005-10-01,87,71.9 2005-11-01,86.8,71.9 2005-12-01,86.7,72.1 2006-01-01,87.2,72.2 2006-02-01,87.1,72.4 2006-03-01,87.4,72.3 2006-04-01,87.2,72.1 2006-05-01,87.2,72.3 2006-06-01,87.2,72.5 2006-07-01,87.1,72.7 2006-08-01,87.1,72.6 2006-09-01,87.4,72.5 2006-10-01,87.4,72.9 2006-11-01,87.5,72.7 2006-12-01,87.7,72.7 2007-01-01,88,72.8 2007-02-01,87.9,72.6 2007-03-01,88,72.7 2007-04-01,87.9,72.2 2007-05-01,87.7,72.5 2007-06-01,87.5,72.5 2007-07-01,87.3,72.4 2007-08-01,87.2,72.6 2007-09-01,87.1,72.5 2007-10-01,86.9,72.4 2007-11-01,87.2,72.5 2007-12-01,87.2,72.4 2008-01-01,87.4,72.7 2008-02-01,87.4,72.6 2008-03-01,87.1,72.6 2008-04-01,86.7,72.7 2008-05-01,86.5,72.6 2008-06-01,86.3,72.6 2008-07-01,86.2,72.4 2008-08-01,85.8,72.1 2008-09-01,85.4,72.3 2008-10-01,85.2,71.9 2008-11-01,84.7,71.7 2008-12-01,83.7,71.6 2009-01-01,83.1,71.1 2009-02-01,82.5,71 2009-03-01,82,70.6 2009-04-01,81.8,70.7 2009-05-01,81.5,70.4 2009-06-01,81.5,70.4 2009-07-01,81.3,70.4 2009-08-01,81.2,70 2009-09-01,80.8,69.5 2009-10-01,80.8,69.4 2009-11-01,80.7,69.8 2009-12-01,80.4,69.2 2010-01-01,80.7,69.8 2010-02-01,80.6,69.7 2010-03-01,80.8,69.5 2010-04-01,81.3,69.6 2010-05-01,81.1,69.3 2010-06-01,81.1,69.5 2010-07-01,81.1,69.1 2010-08-01,81.2,69 2010-09-01,81.2,69.1 2010-10-01,81.1,69 2010-11-01,80.7,69.1 2010-12-01,80.8,69.4 2011-01-01,81.2,69.3 2011-02-01,81.4,69 2011-03-01,81.4,69.3 2011-04-01,81.2,69.1 2011-05-01,81.6,68.9 2011-06-01,81.3,68.8 2011-07-01,81.1,69 2011-08-01,81.4,68.9 2011-09-01,81.3,68.7 2011-10-01,81.1,68.9 2011-11-01,81.9,68.8 2011-12-01,82.1,68.9 2012-01-01,82.5,68.9 2012-02-01,82.4,68.9 2012-03-01,82.5,69.2 2012-04-01,82.5,69.1 2012-05-01,82.5,69.2 2012-06-01,82.6,69 2012-07-01,82.4,69.1 2012-08-01,82.4,69.2 2012-09-01,82.7,69.5 2012-10-01,82.9,69.6 2012-11-01,82.5,69.4 2012-12-01,82.8,69.4 2013-01-01,82.6,68.9 2013-02-01,82.8,69 2013-03-01,82.8,69 2013-04-01,82.8,69.1 2013-05-01,83,69.3 2013-06-01,82.9,69.2 2013-07-01,82.9,69.4 2013-08-01,82.6,69.6 2013-09-01,82.6,69.6 2013-10-01,82.4,69 2013-11-01,83,69.3 2013-12-01,83,69.5 2014-01-01,83.2,69.8 2014-02-01,83,70.1 2014-03-01,83.5,69.8 2014-04-01,83.2,69.9 2014-05-01,83.3,69.8 2014-06-01,83.8,70.2 2014-07-01,83.8,69.8 2014-08-01,83.9,70.1 2014-09-01,84.1,69.8 2014-10-01,84,70.1 2014-11-01,83.9,70.3 2014-12-01,84.2,70.3 2015-01-01,84.3,70.2 2015-02-01,84.3,70.3 2015-03-01,84.5,70 2015-04-01,84.4,70.2 2015-05-01,84.3,70.4 2015-06-01,84.5,70.5 2015-07-01,84.4,70.1 2015-08-01,84.6,70.2 2015-09-01,84.6,70.2 2015-10-01,84.4,70.3 2015-11-01,84.4,70.7 2015-12-01,84.5,70.6 2016-01-01,84.9,70.7 2016-02-01,84.9,70.8 2016-03-01,85.2,70.9 2016-04-01,84.8,70.9 2016-05-01,84.9,71 2016-06-01,85.1,71 2016-07-01,84.9,71.4 2016-08-01,84.9,71.1 2016-09-01,84.9,71.4 2016-10-01,85,71.5 2016-11-01,85,71.4 2016-12-01,85,71.4 2017-01-01,85.3,71.3 2017-02-01,85.2,71.7 2017-03-01,85.2,72 2017-04-01,85.5,72 2017-05-01,85.3,72 2017-06-01,85.4,72.1 2017-07-01,85.3,72.4 2017-08-01,85,72.1 2017-09-01,85.6,72.5 2017-10-01,85.6,72.1 2017-11-01,85.5,72.5 2017-12-01,86,72.2 2018-01-01,86,72.1 2018-02-01,86.4,72.4 2018-03-01,86.2,72.4 2018-04-01,86.3,72.3 2018-05-01,86.4,72.5 2018-06-01,86.1,72.8 2018-07-01,86.2,73.1 2018-08-01,86,72.8 2018-09-01,85.9,73 2018-10-01,86.1,73.4 2018-11-01,86.2,73.1 2018-12-01,86,73.3 2019-01-01,86.5,73.3 2019-02-01,86.6,73.4 2019-03-01,86.8,73.1 2019-04-01,86.5,73.2 2019-05-01,86.3,73.3 2019-06-01,86.2,73.5 2019-07-01,86.2,73.1 2019-08-01,86.2,73.9 2019-09-01,86.4,74.2 2019-10-01,86.4,74.3 2019-11-01,86.6,74.2 2019-12-01,86.4,74.5 2020-01-01,86.7,74.6 2020-02-01,86.5,74.7 2020-03-01,85.8,73.3 2020-04-01,76,63.4 2020-05-01,78,64.9 2020-06-01,79.6,67.6 2020-07-01,79.8,68 2020-08-01,81.5,69.1 2020-09-01,81.5,68.9 2020-10-01,82.1,70.1 2020-11-01,81.9,70.3 2020-12-01,82.2,70.4 2021-01-01,82.6,70.4 2021-02-01,82.7,70.7 2021-03-01,82.8,71.1 2021-04-01,83,71.1 2021-05-01,83,71.3 2021-06-01,83.1,71.3 2021-07-01,83.9,72 2021-08-01,84,72 2021-09-01,84.1,72.1 2021-10-01,84.6,72.2 2021-11-01,84.9,73 2021-12-01,85,73.3 2022-01-01,85.1,73.4 2022-02-01,85.9,73.3 2022-03-01,86,74.1 2022-04-01,86,74 2022-05-01,86.1,74.1 2022-06-01,85.8,73.9 2022-07-01,85.9,74.1 2022-08-01,85.9,74.7 2022-09-01,86.1,74.4 2022-10-01,85.7,74 2022-11-01,85.7,73.8 2022-12-01,86.1,74.1 2023-01-01,85.8,74.7 2023-02-01,86.2,74.8 2023-03-01,86.5,74.9 2023-04-01,86.4,75.1 2023-05-01,86.4,75.1 2023-06-01,86.5,75.3 2023-07-01,86.6,75.3
Notes: The figure shows the share of women ages 25 to 54 that is employed. The values are seasonally adjusted monthly estimates.
The same data for men ages 25 to 54 are shown in Appendix Figure A1.
Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics
The share of prime age women working peaked just below 75 percent in the spring of 2000 and then declined as the economy went into recession in 2001. It never recovered, and following the much deeper 2007-2009 recession, it fell consistently below 70 percent for the first time since the 1980s.2
After a decade of gradual recovery, the strong pre-pandemic labor market saw a surge in women’s entry into the workforce in 2019 and early 2020. Over the year leading up to March 2020, the share of prime age women working jumped 1.3 percentage points, reaching 74.7 percent in February. However, these gains were quickly reversed by the pandemic.
Employment rates initially decreased by similar amounts for prime age women and men, but women recovered faster.3 Prime age women recovered to February 2020 levels by the beginning of 2023, more than six months before men. In the spring of 2023, women’s employment rate passed its spring 2000 peak, rising above 75 percent for the first time.
Children, Education, and Work
To explain the recent evolution of women’s employment, we analyze the prime age population along two dimensions that are central to women’s labor market experience: motherhood and education. We focus on mothers with children under age 10, the ages at which caretaking responsibilities are most likely to prevent a mother from working.4 We divide the population by education based on whether they have at least a four-year college degree or not. These divisions imply four groups of prime age women differentiated by whether they have a child under age 10 and whether they have a college degree.
Figure 2. Prime Age Women by Educational Attainment and Motherhood
Date,No college degree and no children under age 10,No college degree and has a child under age 10,Has a college degree and no children under age 10,Has a college degree and has a child under age 10 1995-01-01,72.89581562,59.69915059,87.14911874,73.14492376 1995-02-01,72.94437417,59.89010012,87.11965432,73.06973444 1995-03-01,72.98782389,60.08668101,87.13381366,73.10498603 1995-04-01,73.08216223,60.18056695,87.17856113,73.21382411 1995-05-01,73.15337845,60.27208623,87.21422696,73.20635315 1995-06-01,73.250707,60.38408053,87.11286771,73.20050299 1995-07-01,73.33892303,60.45264578,87.07822297,73.20980949 1995-08-01,73.33805858,60.61457976,87.02386977,73.15595991 1995-09-01,73.29724728,60.73831488,86.98448642,72.98849279 1995-10-01,73.26162369,60.86259909,86.9956509,72.90051294 1995-11-01,73.24224544,60.99480878,87.03233732,72.90795939 1995-12-01,73.26167127,61.06991741,87.05878074,72.97047846 1996-01-01,73.20183104,61.24668054,87.07531323,72.98732515 1996-02-01,73.16693415,61.29892751,87.07951488,73.0363487 1996-03-01,73.15799025,61.37203526,87.07311171,73.05250826 1996-04-01,73.12422086,61.46960979,87.01726928,73.07326799 1996-05-01,73.15943432,61.52638884,86.9830858,73.02223202 1996-06-01,73.23044562,61.61733473,87.10673051,73.00949193 1996-07-01,73.28242851,61.71389645,87.12965844,72.94954463 1996-08-01,73.37148191,61.72012285,87.23050426,72.93374369 1996-09-01,73.43338414,61.80826573,87.27509265,73.02762293 1996-10-01,73.46419479,61.95188793,87.28806729,73.01316019 1996-11-01,73.47523517,62.0398096,87.27795873,73.04673669 1996-12-01,73.48603602,62.17455477,87.25830544,73.0755898 1997-01-01,73.62921306,62.21445306,87.20849897,73.13432307 1997-02-01,73.66602166,62.27881788,87.22689544,73.19101108 1997-03-01,73.70116613,62.41335726,87.28350125,73.20600522 1997-04-01,73.70769932,62.60886278,87.32030672,73.16985202 1997-05-01,73.65309097,62.84957628,87.30654283,73.23398771 1997-06-01,73.66011538,63.06322788,87.27942802,73.21979518 1997-07-01,73.68210075,63.21950506,87.24477251,73.30043472 1997-08-01,73.79051492,63.35621803,87.22538753,73.38108594 1997-09-01,73.87740834,63.434234,87.24881998,73.3965627 1997-10-01,73.93837155,63.5233862,87.20955011,73.51619564 1997-11-01,73.96991218,63.53039731,87.25538485,73.49253775 1997-12-01,73.99002894,63.59130293,87.39409179,73.44403806 1998-01-01,73.94890732,63.68427391,87.46739854,73.38052276 1998-02-01,73.98376921,63.7707563,87.50072972,73.39083696 1998-03-01,74.02334759,63.80794332,87.46013086,73.45100719 1998-04-01,74.03820572,63.83426135,87.44681286,73.47235393 1998-05-01,74.09610475,63.80823659,87.47330759,73.43524607 1998-06-01,74.1044036,63.81862984,87.49102677,73.38955099 1998-07-01,74.08865024,63.80676982,87.52619905,73.25667441 1998-08-01,74.04690211,63.82283356,87.53417328,73.16787962 1998-09-01,74.08671057,63.87829298,87.54051052,73.02007806 1998-10-01,74.15410536,63.83929678,87.48241593,72.85114334 1998-11-01,74.22217105,63.88110787,87.40080872,72.72319951 1998-12-01,74.3248339,63.92339543,87.32859071,72.60356031 1999-01-01,74.45437513,63.9951133,87.38016822,72.46394184 1999-02-01,74.52541786,64.10643949,87.36016833,72.33398011 1999-03-01,74.58761278,64.11244626,87.31618004,72.29117362 1999-04-01,74.65185938,64.11257845,87.28106308,72.17331722 1999-05-01,74.68166095,64.17355812,87.24568897,72.31830842 1999-06-01,74.69572989,64.18718124,87.21170954,72.42554693 1999-07-01,74.66652731,64.16022819,87.19329014,72.47527117 1999-08-01,74.58150584,64.13295831,87.22579008,72.5946584 1999-09-01,74.53002173,64.11888015,87.21672278,72.54021977 1999-10-01,74.52938348,64.15068341,87.28407596,72.60124409 1999-11-01,74.58092364,64.24413064,87.33197756,72.48183317 1999-12-01,74.60696977,64.2659808,87.31911806,72.26414748 2000-01-01,74.62907422,64.31773629,87.25153545,72.17025486 2000-02-01,74.69173821,64.32571018,87.2710367,72.02146962 2000-03-01,74.707906,64.47765384,87.31734136,71.89804984 2000-04-01,74.73194128,64.65985426,87.34045032,72.00060389 2000-05-01,74.71140053,64.78243255,87.28812942,71.87028165 2000-06-01,74.6973934,64.80131742,87.22552984,71.73779172 2000-07-01,74.69208609,64.85560889,87.12328386,71.64444132 2000-08-01,74.70278445,64.86474604,86.97821918,71.3348542 2000-09-01,74.71322029,64.83772445,86.8264936,71.1841478 2000-10-01,74.70051092,64.8431315,86.70561529,70.93928002 2000-11-01,74.65124203,64.84456131,86.61237357,70.80561818 2000-12-01,74.6221309,64.90837875,86.57381598,70.79097737 2001-01-01,74.58092787,64.92903224,86.57411962,70.92717991 2001-02-01,74.53245195,64.95070126,86.47070157,71.06105568 2001-03-01,74.56807849,64.89929146,86.34339019,70.89680293 2001-04-01,74.5420182,64.79577288,86.20787602,70.61639457 2001-05-01,74.51943363,64.73051851,86.08920862,70.35383944 2001-06-01,74.49154576,64.76915434,85.93612046,70.12335589 2001-07-01,74.47874502,64.75885146,85.831226,69.92119798 2001-08-01,74.44005784,64.81607685,85.7417686,69.82284714 2001-09-01,74.31263846,64.84028316,85.68803838,69.72591173 2001-10-01,74.17230494,64.67373245,85.63852137,69.64271527 2001-11-01,74.03057383,64.49712399,85.53154745,69.59484386 2001-12-01,73.89761624,64.32233028,85.37873678,69.67609835 2002-01-01,73.73156189,64.08269375,85.27397047,69.54359333 2002-02-01,73.58022535,63.818894,85.26072807,69.49813924 2002-03-01,73.36852083,63.5614859,85.26211222,69.60653712 2002-04-01,73.2230666,63.37363739,85.24188296,69.62460058 2002-05-01,73.06834783,63.17423905,85.19030376,69.7266552 2002-06-01,72.91041215,62.9924476,85.12048503,69.79084767 2002-07-01,72.75498725,62.88325636,84.9832964,69.71818401 2002-08-01,72.6646733,62.70443066,84.96339805,69.69083101 2002-09-01,72.58913602,62.58089013,84.93367497,69.64166999 2002-10-01,72.56082165,62.56510364,84.86795842,69.56220565 2002-11-01,72.51911364,62.48069639,84.88987339,69.56227453 2002-12-01,72.50049953,62.41508954,84.92277614,69.42874152 2003-01-01,72.54010965,62.3667862,84.82049038,69.34822602 2003-02-01,72.5232897,62.28161676,84.70104231,69.19546166 2003-03-01,72.51802402,62.25678707,84.60580768,69.01762983 2003-04-01,72.5357928,62.22204924,84.52508759,68.92916738 2003-05-01,72.57562877,62.15084684,84.52601946,68.740799 2003-06-01,72.62607628,62.06972709,84.59464357,68.70649452 2003-07-01,72.66066195,61.8865366,84.72550771,68.80357477 2003-08-01,72.61944727,61.76165064,84.74045915,68.98665799 2003-09-01,72.58226937,61.55140201,84.69048518,69.05033613 2003-10-01,72.4822757,61.37739249,84.62607535,69.17017246 2003-11-01,72.42810233,61.26798406,84.55434612,69.3379918 2003-12-01,72.3179648,61.13137306,84.51971547,69.35397059 2004-01-01,72.22769085,61.06449689,84.49254609,69.3419568 2004-02-01,72.15546593,61.11094414,84.48450174,69.32900954 2004-03-01,72.05604282,61.1092737,84.46085816,69.33560637 2004-04-01,72.00183387,61.02339143,84.47868967,69.2954824 2004-05-01,71.9784737,61.02045341,84.49616145,69.26561616 2004-06-01,71.96284947,61.00674616,84.50131342,69.12375655 2004-07-01,71.97197833,61.07978519,84.58120025,69.07997167 2004-08-01,72.02203028,61.14726622,84.61906621,68.96040205 2004-09-01,72.07022208,61.17990141,84.69688211,69.0188245 2004-10-01,72.12685048,61.24128202,84.78410713,69.11138442 2004-11-01,72.13013771,61.27344188,84.87430968,69.20863626 2004-12-01,72.12146554,61.30321499,84.94072937,69.40187161 2005-01-01,72.04923769,61.33534023,85.10672516,69.66288402 2005-02-01,72.04866215,61.25984739,85.1829453,69.83353039 2005-03-01,72.04872063,61.16630894,85.21717025,69.92553029 2005-04-01,72.0158013,61.14213233,85.24591898,70.11094445 2005-05-01,71.99916547,61.13981776,85.27283319,70.23985375 2005-06-01,71.93408698,61.1456169,85.28410285,70.36327261 2005-07-01,71.90628655,61.15579894,85.27230129,70.40450864 2005-08-01,71.90424344,61.08194513,85.27609032,70.4570949 2005-09-01,71.89617019,61.10481798,85.34237587,70.46788567 2005-10-01,71.85517499,61.11512598,85.3830807,70.46873541 2005-11-01,71.8041126,61.14187145,85.32065571,70.47852865 2005-12-01,71.81298196,61.1224553,85.3055541,70.45989215 2006-01-01,71.84719786,61.00639791,85.24674672,70.45624592 2006-02-01,71.85006855,60.98691192,85.25840857,70.5550058 2006-03-01,71.87005606,60.99472741,85.30978033,70.68143705 2006-04-01,71.8699137,60.99665126,85.32374117,70.7467692 2006-05-01,71.8929759,60.99781192,85.3524245,70.85013586 2006-06-01,71.98034457,61.02695853,85.37640391,70.9473056 2006-07-01,72.02471978,61.08157063,85.38467574,71.03194197 2006-08-01,72.02159451,61.23083684,85.37794222,71.23354803 2006-09-01,72.01512273,61.27398968,85.34360877,71.46017947 2006-10-01,72.08719899,61.31391087,85.35642829,71.71579684 2006-11-01,72.13513912,61.35513637,85.39304724,71.86580689 2006-12-01,72.16415902,61.45736874,85.36263416,71.96576831 2007-01-01,72.24246569,61.6284304,85.31869292,71.93213792 2007-02-01,72.21009287,61.77806843,85.30418247,71.78887923 2007-03-01,72.27846307,61.93822995,85.27229116,71.6861918 2007-04-01,72.26971421,62.11455879,85.28367046,71.50257401 2007-05-01,72.24667505,62.17594806,85.29851408,71.44300836 2007-06-01,72.19215425,62.18339547,85.36035883,71.50002389 2007-07-01,72.12262658,62.14643191,85.31428842,71.58623591 2007-08-01,72.1092473,62.13524682,85.33897547,71.58847549 2007-09-01,72.13017945,62.15936495,85.32015143,71.55979711 2007-10-01,72.05238832,62.18915818,85.27888844,71.46028723 2007-11-01,72.04044903,62.22277384,85.3093335,71.42731542 2007-12-01,72.00267019,62.1909532,85.32527238,71.46173141 2008-01-01,71.94457196,62.20108779,85.3528862,71.53050044 2008-02-01,71.94266952,62.09914348,85.34173862,71.69951538 2008-03-01,71.86756022,62.00416462,85.39835288,71.91427009 2008-04-01,71.89704812,61.89408618,85.47303602,72.21741667 2008-05-01,71.82094863,61.89144832,85.43398194,72.49131297 2008-06-01,71.80493958,61.93304037,85.42261495,72.67705787 2008-07-01,71.81746757,61.87090807,85.44481889,72.80190763 2008-08-01,71.77320617,61.76968532,85.39818036,72.84960858 2008-09-01,71.73069988,61.65716728,85.39664806,72.9332789 2008-10-01,71.70519294,61.48760733,85.36979635,72.86100844 2008-11-01,71.64175322,61.35100364,85.31968518,72.75258476 2008-12-01,71.48885132,61.24689421,85.27891268,72.62648498 2009-01-01,71.30644155,61.07763733,85.15916405,72.52841702 2009-02-01,71.13297994,60.96704375,85.07202808,72.39231965 2009-03-01,70.95525338,60.76376331,84.92270189,72.15498131 2009-04-01,70.813093,60.47481515,84.8220704,72.10292331 2009-05-01,70.65414696,60.13601575,84.68732802,71.9850604 2009-06-01,70.46717292,59.81345702,84.51819113,71.92744077 2009-07-01,70.26029192,59.62843975,84.34665757,71.88927167 2009-08-01,70.01306563,59.38398014,84.18148534,71.9136242 2009-09-01,69.70214369,59.11618171,83.94746381,71.93092808 2009-10-01,69.39554338,58.78619551,83.79442233,71.96856095 2009-11-01,69.15981031,58.54015024,83.62684965,72.02230425 2009-12-01,68.96362952,58.30114865,83.417706,71.94839611 2010-01-01,68.90455344,58.07521111,83.30875572,71.97840281 2010-02-01,68.80097478,57.96433744,83.19621352,72.03960058 2010-03-01,68.67298925,57.90640477,83.07585264,72.10247096 2010-04-01,68.53781414,57.85424574,82.9747436,72.02948176 2010-05-01,68.41064279,57.75106963,82.89382359,71.95199716 2010-06-01,68.30856946,57.68037783,82.8503784,71.81287898 2010-07-01,68.13225056,57.58516535,82.79425117,71.76372676 2010-08-01,68.05905247,57.57845559,82.77953809,71.55930389 2010-09-01,68.05156753,57.58730092,82.83671999,71.3929146 2010-10-01,68.03533066,57.7412017,82.76198099,71.47425229 2010-11-01,67.99642078,57.72662468,82.72297759,71.39146411 2010-12-01,68.03794586,57.72648327,82.726875,71.51820982 2011-01-01,67.9399013,57.75782018,82.71951939,71.52161602 2011-02-01,67.84796104,57.64524925,82.68810921,71.52692079 2011-03-01,67.80710758,57.54967282,82.68985927,71.61481422 2011-04-01,67.69464643,57.52435964,82.62923288,71.71462776 2011-05-01,67.60352517,57.48181922,82.68298133,71.78620988 2011-06-01,67.44575718,57.44436504,82.72084191,71.79472053 2011-07-01,67.38835339,57.41650046,82.72902144,71.81947159 2011-08-01,67.29614525,57.41161034,82.72922985,71.93164148 2011-09-01,67.18916593,57.41121644,82.73383702,71.91871704 2011-10-01,67.1994744,57.26038968,82.76491253,71.70309173 2011-11-01,67.18716924,57.16803471,82.68900247,71.60450643 2011-12-01,67.12232313,57.03965609,82.66032433,71.50783592 2012-01-01,67.09905683,56.92142251,82.55439173,71.54870844 2012-02-01,67.02103562,56.92255588,82.54902544,71.62304721 2012-03-01,66.93760565,56.97273288,82.56650399,71.66747536 2012-04-01,66.86917251,57.07864198,82.62063674,71.61692469 2012-05-01,66.82012417,57.17921982,82.66740842,71.63709466 2012-06-01,66.81988031,57.3228643,82.62044737,71.63508557 2012-07-01,66.84938757,57.33415993,82.68371009,71.61843239 2012-08-01,66.89375906,57.24839608,82.70473085,71.75023891 2012-09-01,66.96376036,57.18087021,82.75636264,71.9198825 2012-10-01,66.93931496,57.24424792,82.83393637,72.05401554 2012-11-01,66.87953748,57.30652905,82.93525485,72.08410785 2012-12-01,66.82932703,57.3985155,82.94924702,72.07120227 2013-01-01,66.73972073,57.38235142,82.99449893,72.06349216 2013-02-01,66.75140773,57.28136653,83.02369496,71.98019069 2013-03-01,66.75355842,57.14851957,82.95523848,72.00531759 2013-04-01,66.81686381,56.98407545,82.85995363,72.07742886 2013-05-01,66.92690466,56.98601679,82.79126562,72.06223458 2013-06-01,66.9617915,56.89001036,82.78439761,72.18862419 2013-07-01,66.99153086,56.9326834,82.75764155,72.24172089 2013-08-01,67.02058632,56.97140715,82.82374102,72.29064868 2013-09-01,66.99077276,57.09017762,82.79314761,72.3085505 2013-10-01,66.92934632,57.05282551,82.72212379,72.44512903 2013-11-01,66.90535442,56.99442078,82.72114852,72.7190577 2013-12-01,66.92148614,56.98262681,82.72471454,73.03665816 2014-01-01,66.93520498,57.11702381,82.80869842,73.3797418 2014-02-01,66.99400044,57.24787966,82.81365063,73.66354835 2014-03-01,67.0509829,57.31591044,82.87939783,73.78068082 2014-04-01,67.10733489,57.41547469,82.94552074,73.86113652 2014-05-01,67.08158318,57.38575425,82.99481452,73.96025856 2014-06-01,67.15048,57.39718171,82.96975344,73.9300669 2014-07-01,67.17383026,57.36158048,82.8887299,73.89710779 2014-08-01,67.22803771,57.3424289,82.80955096,73.79941823 2014-09-01,67.29004543,57.2849682,82.76452533,73.73152293 2014-10-01,67.38994456,57.35380907,82.82325259,73.74026672 2014-11-01,67.53366288,57.4152308,82.82819679,73.85222893 2014-12-01,67.60467343,57.41154535,82.89301266,73.83494453 2015-01-01,67.65677821,57.42046204,82.88460868,73.75228718 2015-02-01,67.66063575,57.47290463,82.93618496,73.7305381 2015-03-01,67.60835803,57.59654729,83.0189443,73.71092986 2015-04-01,67.55769717,57.69885269,83.03827396,73.71489623 2015-05-01,67.60084218,57.84809684,83.0847189,73.69521313 2015-06-01,67.63319562,57.92919821,83.11649535,73.75233719 2015-07-01,67.64585852,57.90986678,83.26200381,73.76292197 2015-08-01,67.59471107,57.98383642,83.33544147,73.81947651 2015-09-01,67.5419331,58.09887768,83.39814247,73.87889157 2015-10-01,67.48249354,58.23647599,83.48274698,73.84239047 2015-11-01,67.47725203,58.30960335,83.56473894,73.80288034 2015-12-01,67.44678557,58.51253514,83.62107389,73.76679662 2016-01-01,67.46590142,58.70735016,83.66743224,73.713022 2016-02-01,67.4882791,58.87149975,83.67587561,73.68853354 2016-03-01,67.55272896,59.01346146,83.70701289,73.7592161 2016-04-01,67.59570153,59.10236456,83.76380124,73.8562933 2016-05-01,67.62549051,59.16188955,83.73694923,73.94289437 2016-06-01,67.6005084,59.20058764,83.84554123,73.96617507 2016-07-01,67.7111539,59.38865173,83.82677552,74.04944063 2016-08-01,67.74433032,59.588039,83.79471262,74.07202088 2016-09-01,67.79447903,59.75787362,83.87583354,74.16502785 2016-10-01,67.8829925,59.87092263,83.91434715,74.19019239 2016-11-01,67.86614228,60.02402349,83.94042569,74.13534142 2016-12-01,67.91908723,60.12284532,83.91984325,74.11997665 2017-01-01,67.94959008,60.1237457,83.92106478,74.14252914 2017-02-01,68.0054713,60.15140394,83.96053715,74.18846327 2017-03-01,68.09148334,60.16201902,84.00379879,74.15083271 2017-04-01,68.20667111,60.23563291,84.07037166,74.03432101 2017-05-01,68.27838282,60.25348395,84.13054723,74.07040739 2017-06-01,68.37754046,60.41802999,84.11703154,74.2013466 2017-07-01,68.3881871,60.55324678,84.21965171,74.36906767 2017-08-01,68.48959538,60.52743287,84.28972543,74.4763181 2017-09-01,68.60772856,60.52279426,84.32252511,74.5409597 2017-10-01,68.63122816,60.55854857,84.28719463,74.58885325 2017-11-01,68.72658905,60.66503085,84.25923217,74.70387425 2017-12-01,68.78867597,60.77411114,84.24275642,74.68832143 2018-01-01,68.87069512,60.84588088,84.20534676,74.65060612 2018-02-01,68.98194216,60.79896539,84.26110821,74.66402238 2018-03-01,69.03994633,60.74016077,84.30064725,74.63521917 2018-04-01,69.10793842,60.6703122,84.28709773,74.69957534 2018-05-01,69.18556642,60.76834112,84.3436115,74.71725557 2018-06-01,69.25876021,60.89418127,84.3716192,74.70192046 2018-07-01,69.3685839,60.97437623,84.37030075,74.71096186 2018-08-01,69.40826122,61.0783701,84.50959721,74.75547286 2018-09-01,69.47022427,61.20009952,84.55163194,74.78131428 2018-10-01,69.59929253,61.34805716,84.63358495,74.93055258 2018-11-01,69.66880726,61.43094958,84.71090832,75.06411111 2018-12-01,69.76613358,61.42293386,84.83778316,75.3156304 2019-01-01,69.87582034,61.41150998,84.97092481,75.43637946 2019-02-01,69.93294178,61.43917886,85.03560904,75.46597196 2019-03-01,69.91202533,61.47839739,85.03134272,75.55244238 2019-04-01,69.89315667,61.52448506,85.06175484,75.62385182 2019-05-01,69.90169517,61.584945,85.0916576,75.67671831 2019-06-01,69.88513423,61.6420356,85.19041524,75.73258212 2019-07-01,69.8489877,61.65378548,85.13825173,75.7371996 2019-08-01,69.90711827,61.80465094,85.09166126,75.89409415 2019-09-01,69.95510809,61.89237805,85.12011881,76.04322569 2019-10-01,69.99910226,61.97294557,85.17260693,76.24166863 2019-11-01,70.03727543,62.02476551,85.2763551,76.41223978 2019-12-01,70.1665404,62.11543649,85.34184603,76.56722187 2020-01-01,70.25182353,62.23256272,85.46135284,76.70324635 2020-02-01,70.33425382,62.41310776,85.48069072,76.80705558 2020-03-01,70.38974517,62.39229254,85.48208053,76.80252599 2020-04-01,69.29328783,61.32678811,84.85700241,76.32938367 2020-05-01,68.38394689,60.25900705,84.24127046,75.9895136 2020-06-01,67.76146666,59.41779306,83.73632974,75.82546731 2020-07-01,67.18645427,58.92837042,83.33846068,75.61033204 2020-08-01,66.68138426,58.37831075,83.02283708,75.32549649 2020-09-01,66.10252509,57.77879265,82.7191666,74.99218966 2020-10-01,65.71439545,57.21566304,82.50144692,74.57770164 2020-11-01,65.36827081,56.75571891,82.17228907,74.20775175 2020-12-01,64.94624871,56.29937391,81.92836783,73.93514377 2021-01-01,64.50323364,55.81707628,81.68274414,73.67579487 2021-02-01,64.06337008,55.27840198,81.47556211,73.508794 2021-03-01,63.82696359,54.94639474,81.32916688,73.44656639 2021-04-01,64.634871,55.61930505,81.75201825,73.92069573 2021-05-01,65.2703337,56.17048556,82.13022846,74.39468351 2021-06-01,65.56367428,56.48749896,82.37917983,74.7608423 2021-07-01,65.86680826,56.63640508,82.73480447,75.0298543 2021-08-01,66.13324999,56.72061914,83.00016494,75.14659355 2021-09-01,66.48412871,56.8182187,83.22701662,75.27484124 2021-10-01,66.67397962,56.90863251,83.31044584,75.49484434 2021-11-01,66.87751059,57.11887687,83.50413062,75.74222474 2021-12-01,67.06065981,57.34764636,83.65248807,76.04275414 2022-01-01,67.30133484,57.59830572,83.78027668,76.48647224 2022-02-01,67.53193749,57.86716767,83.92490455,76.74325094 2022-03-01,67.80530098,58.16303649,84.11062125,77.10147921 2022-04-01,68.05226433,58.53589507,84.34191062,77.35395789 2022-05-01,68.27498803,58.90385354,84.58279622,77.47882772 2022-06-01,68.61385154,59.17910335,84.78329431,77.45138693 2022-07-01,68.82939876,59.50891343,84.90235606,77.55518356 2022-08-01,69.01355327,59.94685113,85.03419025,77.81940635 2022-09-01,69.14834067,60.4211232,85.09538231,78.00828232 2022-10-01,69.19893071,60.79386863,85.16115663,78.20921137 2022-11-01,69.21609976,60.96654963,85.1872354,78.36767283 2022-12-01,69.32079016,61.05117405,85.19113196,78.45915677 2023-01-01,69.54330961,61.31897968,85.21018949,78.56256382 2023-02-01,69.75313203,61.55240337,85.28373139,78.84719982 2023-03-01,69.83250787,61.84166657,85.32066175,78.99129323 2023-04-01,69.99210854,62.09113456,85.34371209,79.15276996 2023-05-01,70.08013698,62.34364536,85.33970756,79.21798327 2023-06-01,70.16233794,62.63856152,85.34785136,79.38411897 2023-07-01,70.19411919,62.82250824,85.39520315,79.5578914
Year,No college degree and no children under age 10,No college degree and has a child under age 10,Has a college degree and no children under age 10,Has a college degree and has a child under age 10 1995,48.19959386,27.27328679,16.34899923,8.178120117 1996,47.60968974,26.79554749,16.99048247,8.604280303 1997,47.30441983,26.52815953,17.45806446,8.709356184 1998,47.23450559,25.81430167,17.88514172,9.066051019 1999,46.95327131,25.14842775,18.51882594,9.379475001 2000,46.84818342,24.81336227,18.98914485,9.34930946 2001,46.97928434,24.21019985,19.35185715,9.458658664 2002,47.00075731,23.52737944,19.68448998,9.78737327 2003,46.80684505,23.14483373,19.95865095,10.08967027 2004,46.24281595,23.22242275,20.1388928,10.39586849 2005,46.42940158,22.89248414,20.30363152,10.37448276 2006,46.24131393,22.46004199,20.61851478,10.68012931 2007,45.41425617,22.38589006,21.14764755,11.05220622 2008,45.21645833,21.99388614,21.50626786,11.28338767 2009,45.16534413,21.98509081,21.46184077,11.38772429 2010,44.87975629,21.73588537,21.81788637,11.56647197 2011,44.61046695,21.47641661,22.1809989,11.73211754 2012,43.94631232,21.39086046,22.91366256,11.74916466 2013,43.3433624,21.06630293,23.58087174,12.00946292 2014,43.11673763,20.44479614,24.02925341,12.40921282 2015,42.17488412,20.50341319,24.64277288,12.6789298 2016,41.48397497,20.16460664,25.55862524,12.79279316 2017,41.0166958,19.52989723,26.47824814,12.97515882 2018,40.27430547,19.1325654,27.48511359,13.10801554 2019,39.34957302,18.7225341,28.28926347,13.63862941 2020,38.10564554,17.90753919,29.90903436,14.07778091 2021,37.72978962,17.85135407,30.51382936,13.90502696 2022,37.49218685,17.82818615,30.58832701,14.0913 2023,37.02127634,17.48766869,31.30954935,14.18150562
Notes: Panel (a) shows the share of women ages 25 to 54 in each group that is employed. The values are 12-month rolling averages of monthly estimates.
Panel (b) shows the distribution of women ages 25 to 54 across the four groups. The values are averages of monthly estimates for the 12-month period ending September of each year. This period is chosen to align with the latest available month of survey microdata, September 2023.
The same estimates for men ages 25 to 54 are shown in Appendix Figure A2.
Source: PWBM calculations from CPS data. Data obtained via IPUMS.
Figure 2 shows the factors that determine the overall women’s employment rate, broken down across these four groups. Panel (a) plots the employment rate within each of the four education/motherhood groups and panel (b) shows the share of prime age women in each group. To smooth over month-to-month noise and seasonal variation in group-level estimates, we plot 12-month averages of monthly estimates.5
Employment gaps by education and motherhood
Education and motherhood are associated with large differentials in women’s labor market outcomes. Women with a college degree (the orange lines in panel (a) of Figure 2) are about 15 percentage points more likely to work than women without a degree (the blue lines). Mothers of young children (the solid lines) are about 10 percentage points less likely to work than women without children (the dashed lines).6 This gap has shrunk recently for college-educated mothers, as we discuss in detail later in this brief.
These associations do not imply that education and motherhood are themselves the causes of differences in the likelihood of working. Both education and motherhood reflect choices made by women, and those choices may in turn reflect preferences towards work. For instance, if women with career aspirations are more likely to go to college, the employment rate of college graduates will be higher even if attending college itself has no effect on the likelihood of working. In that case, the choice to attend college is a signal of an underlying preference for work. On the other hand, the associations may be causal: the birth of a child leads some women to stop working despite preferring to work. We address these questions of interpretation at length in the full working paper.
Trends in employment rates
For three of the four education/motherhood groups, employment rates have generally followed the business cycle with no clear trend up or down since the 2001 recession. College graduates without children and women without a college degree (with or without children) never recovered from the 2001 downturn, and Figure 2(a) shows that their employment rates in 2023 were still below the highs reached in 2000. Relative to the pre-pandemic peak in February 2020, only non-college mothers have recovered; the share of women without children working remains slightly lower than before the pandemic.
College-educated mothers with young children – the solid orange line in Figure 2(a) – have followed a very different trajectory. Their employment rate increased steadily over the past two decades, rising from below 70 percent in the early 2000s to nearly 80 percent in 2023. It has also been less sensitive to the business cycle than other groups’. Strikingly, the 2007-2009 recession only temporarily halted its rise but did not reverse it, even as other groups’ employment fell appreciably. Following the pandemic, college-educated mothers recovered faster than any other education/motherhood group, or any comparable group of men.
Trends in educational attainment
Women have attended and graduated from college at higher rates than men since at least the early 1980s, and over the last few decades women’s educational attainment caught up to men’s and then pulled far ahead.7 As these new graduates finished school and entered working ages, the share of prime age women who had a college degree increased rapidly.
Figure 2(b) shows that the college-graduate share increased from less than a quarter in the 1990s to more than 45 percent in 2023 (combining college graduates with and without children). The college-graduate share increased among both mothers and women without children and rose especially rapidly in the 2010s, as the bulk of Millennials were entering prime working ages.
This has led to the emergence of a substantial gender gap in educational attainment. In 2002, the share of prime age women with at least a four-year degree equaled the share of men, with just under 30 percent of each sex having completed college. Over the next two decades, the share of women with a degree rose almost 16 percentage points, compared with only 9 percentage points for men.
Figure 3. Changes Since 2002 in Educational Attainment by Sex
Year,Bachelor's degree only,Advanced degree 2003,0.064494006,0.200739881 2004,0.224354621,0.52731934 2005,0.230550959,0.664475988 2006,0.686771532,0.828785222 2007,1.29877888,1.117987557 2008,1.490067602,1.516500596 2009,1.456686222,1.609791516 2010,1.793064608,1.808206402 2011,1.846796012,2.283233098 2012,2.219835039,2.659904848 2013,2.799943147,3.00730419 2014,3.073430985,3.581947919 2015,3.21708667,4.321528682 2016,3.49579527,5.072535793 2017,4.223624963,5.446694669 2018,5.039847842,5.770193958 2019,5.66175371,6.483051834 2020,6.592752553,7.610975383 2021,6.759730791,7.876038198 2022,6.62486719,8.27167249 2023,6.905671416,8.802296223
Year,Bachelor's degree only,Advanced degree 2003,-0.037139691,-0.021943377 2004,0.08324926,0.036564219 2005,-0.173004728,-0.050556117 2006,-0.21361308,0.045118234 2007,0.194618368,0.04208728 2008,0.456915569,0.027356943 2009,0.22148792,-0.014474152 2010,0.284113385,-0.109675383 2011,0.535706292,0.107535949 2012,0.718920057,0.464484173 2013,1.28998283,0.866344091 2014,1.423447428,0.968554808 2015,1.94658238,1.336659987 2016,2.264622629,1.905814217 2017,2.44118373,2.18378703 2018,3.325795423,2.253473002 2019,3.751537184,2.53599536 2020,4.230856434,3.078173102 2021,4.621984025,3.067184295 2022,4.848433329,3.129648791 2023,5.319944871,3.772990175
Notes: The figure shows the change since 2002 in the share of the population ages 25 to 54 that had either a Bachelor’s or advanced degree, by sex. The values are averages of monthly estimates for the 12-month period ending September of each year. This period is chosen to align with the latest available month of survey microdata, September 2023.
Source: PWBM calculations from CPS data. Data obtained via IPUMS.
The gender gap is even starker when we consider education beyond a four-year college degree, as in Figure 3. Between 2002 and 2023, the share of prime age women with an advanced degree rose about 9 percentage points, accounting for more than half of the rise in the overall college share. The share of men with an advanced degree increased less than 4 percentage points. Today, almost 18 percent of prime age women have an advanced degree, compared with 13.5 percent of men.
Contributions to the Rise in Women’s Employment Rate
To quantify how the trends described above have affected the overall employment rate of prime age women, we use the fact that the overall rate in Figure 1 is a weighted average of the within-group rates in panel (a) of Figure 2, with weights equal to each group’s population share from panel (b).8 This implies that any change over time in the overall employment rate arises from one of two sources: changes in within-group rates or changes in the relative population size of each group.
Table 1 shows the contributions of each to changes in prime age women’s employment rate. The first column decomposes the 0.8 percentage point increase since July 2000 – the month in which the 12-month average peaked before the 2001 recession.9 The second column decomposes the 1 percentage point increase relative to the pre-pandemic peak in February 2020.
Table 1. Contributions to Changes in Prime Age Women's Employment Rate
Percentage points
| July 2000 to September 2023 | February 2020 to September 2023 | |
|---|---|---|
| Contribution of within-group employment rates | -1.9 | 0.5 |
| Has a college degree | ||
| Has a child under age 10 | 1.1 | 0.4 |
| No children under age 10 | -0.2 | 0.0 |
| No college degree | ||
| Has a child under age 10 | -0.6 | 0.1 |
| No children under age 10 | -2.2 | 0.0 |
| Contribution of changes in group population shares | 2.7 | 0.5 |
| Total change in employment rate | 0.8 | 1.0 |
Notes: Contributions are calculated using a Fisher (chain-weighted) index. Values are based on the 12-month period ending in each month indicated.
Numbers in the table may not add up to totals because of rounding.
Source: PWBM calculations from CPS data. Data obtained via IPUMS.
Between 2000 and 2023, within-group employment rate changes (panel (a) of Figure 2) lowered the overall employment rate by 1.9 percentage points on net. The nearly 10-percentage point rise in the share of college-educated mothers working during this period added 1.1 percentage points to the overall employment rate, but that was more than offset by the long-term decline in the share of non-college women who worked, which subtracted almost 3 percentage points between 2020 and 2023. Nevertheless, absent the rise in college-educated women’s employment, the overall employment rate would still be lower than 2000 by almost half a percentage point.
Shifts in the distribution of the population across the four groups (panel (b) of Figure 2) added 2.7 percentage points to prime age women’s employment rate from 2000 to 2023.10 The growing population share of high-education, high-employment women (and the corresponding fall in the share of low-education, low-employment women) accounts for all of this increase; changes in mothers’ share play essentially no role. This means that women’s rising educational attainment is by far the biggest contributor to the rise in their employment rate since the early 2000s. As discussed above, this does not necessarily mean that going to college caused women to work more. To the extent that college attendance is a reflection of preferences towards work, the rise in educational attainment is simply an index of women’s expanding career expectations.
Patterns are similar for the post-pandemic period, with one major difference: employment of women without a college degree largely recovered from the downturn and is currently close to February 2020 levels. The share of college-educated mothers who worked rose almost 3 percentage points, adding 0.4 percentage points to the overall women’s employment rate. The rising share of women with a college degree added another 0.5 percentage points to the overall rate. Hence, the strong recovery of women’s employment from the COVID-19 recession reflects the same long-term trends that supported a rising employment rate before the pandemic.
The Rise in College-Educated Mothers’ Employment
Between 2002 and 2023, the employment rate of college-educated mothers with young children rose more than 10 percentage points, adding over a percentage point to the overall women’s employment rate (see Table 1). Figure 4 shows that this remarkable rise in the share of highly educated mothers working was matched almost exactly by a fall in the share who did not work because they were caring for family full-time. Panel (a) plots the change since 2002 in the employment rate of each of the four education/motherhood groups, and panel (b) shows the change in the share of the population who reported not working for family reasons.11
Figure 4. Changes Since 2002 in the Labor Force Status of Prime Age Women
Date,Change in employment rate,Without rise in college degree attainment 2003-01-01,-0.012462832,-0.019792014 2003-02-01,-0.073381964,-0.08409616 2003-03-01,-0.111841922,-0.126059736 2003-04-01,-0.132513272,-0.148656637 2003-05-01,-0.144915744,-0.163519244 2003-06-01,-0.123292175,-0.146608865 2003-07-01,-0.109344226,-0.136708094 2003-08-01,-0.129736789,-0.164212794 2003-09-01,-0.198114735,-0.237696597 2003-10-01,-0.281113187,-0.330682287 2003-11-01,-0.329000911,-0.387029666 2003-12-01,-0.422343807,-0.486004624 2004-01-01,-0.484813345,-0.557175237 2004-02-01,-0.50956736,-0.586128964 2004-03-01,-0.556526608,-0.638735748 2004-04-01,-0.599472041,-0.684909546 2004-05-01,-0.612832186,-0.696683345 2004-06-01,-0.641309637,-0.723011616 2004-07-01,-0.61214863,-0.691246439 2004-08-01,-0.581113094,-0.656397028 2004-09-01,-0.527310496,-0.604018397 2004-10-01,-0.45598276,-0.531404936 2004-11-01,-0.414859133,-0.490682442 2004-12-01,-0.373853352,-0.450533353 2005-01-01,-0.341389872,-0.417103311 2005-02-01,-0.328966983,-0.406057835 2005-03-01,-0.330282049,-0.409134909 2005-04-01,-0.321001724,-0.402352812 2005-05-01,-0.299194522,-0.385563598 2005-06-01,-0.298870182,-0.389128689 2005-07-01,-0.291194669,-0.387372863 2005-08-01,-0.284486782,-0.388724022 2005-09-01,-0.252704122,-0.365261703 2005-10-01,-0.248035006,-0.368048619 2005-11-01,-0.264007306,-0.391110374 2005-12-01,-0.252869517,-0.389011979 2006-01-01,-0.26940673,-0.410128641 2006-02-01,-0.254633971,-0.399164762 2006-03-01,-0.220823022,-0.368247997 2006-04-01,-0.212018277,-0.362406374 2006-05-01,-0.185636925,-0.341931337 2006-06-01,-0.125480821,-0.287934303 2006-07-01,-0.078272943,-0.248919246 2006-08-01,-0.025314826,-0.20043689 2006-09-01,-0.000637228,-0.176009368 2006-10-01,0.074468394,-0.101544369 2006-11-01,0.139281201,-0.043424134 2006-12-01,0.191212726,-0.002777867 2007-01-01,0.265174827,0.0578071 2007-02-01,0.275015883,0.053825539 2007-03-01,0.325371481,0.093971573 2007-04-01,0.345826066,0.104450537 2007-05-01,0.348596997,0.096497023 2007-06-01,0.352742701,0.088594253 2007-07-01,0.324021097,0.046406304 2007-08-01,0.326825745,0.038526623 2007-09-01,0.338603967,0.044313807 2007-10-01,0.2953825,-0.006220944 2007-11-01,0.300627997,-0.003879924 2007-12-01,0.285430579,-0.022873499 2008-01-01,0.285028289,-0.02975132 2008-02-01,0.295446698,-0.030516623 2008-03-01,0.298284296,-0.039952758 2008-04-01,0.3506179,0.003719077 2008-05-01,0.346950124,-0.001482647 2008-06-01,0.369232774,0.020548233 2008-07-01,0.377730963,0.029935519 2008-08-01,0.333693953,-0.016772584 2008-09-01,0.303954241,-0.053392741 2008-10-01,0.24119018,-0.119625905 2008-11-01,0.15990988,-0.205531543 2008-12-01,0.045093502,-0.319629457 2009-01-01,-0.113667952,-0.474342856 2009-02-01,-0.255551987,-0.608415962 2009-03-01,-0.446026111,-0.792751955 2009-04-01,-0.607122749,-0.951162312 2009-05-01,-0.793343722,-1.141325247 2009-06-01,-0.989242886,-1.341341114 2009-07-01,-1.162333865,-1.517750985 2009-08-01,-1.352005875,-1.712956967 2009-09-01,-1.595989122,-1.961259102 2009-10-01,-1.826823806,-2.199530852 2009-11-01,-2.009748391,-2.38787466 2009-12-01,-2.201148761,-2.583983147 2010-01-01,-2.292701407,-2.683525088 2010-02-01,-2.380975539,-2.775985911 2010-03-01,-2.463605765,-2.863912873 2010-04-01,-2.554023667,-2.96111814 2010-05-01,-2.654531763,-3.063935424 2010-06-01,-2.728828109,-3.148718391 2010-07-01,-2.835773686,-3.265727184 2010-08-01,-2.895164265,-3.329651147 2010-09-01,-2.895611501,-3.339289265 2010-10-01,-2.872971138,-3.320562872 2010-11-01,-2.908417857,-3.359378525 2010-12-01,-2.872106589,-3.326591115 2011-01-01,-2.906126873,-3.362862014 2011-02-01,-2.963721245,-3.429125005 2011-03-01,-2.976470581,-3.453517749 2011-04-01,-3.018028563,-3.505306801 2011-05-01,-3.035157911,-3.532968334 2011-06-01,-3.099585765,-3.60305585 2011-07-01,-3.124856996,-3.630737891 2011-08-01,-3.147328649,-3.659657631 2011-09-01,-3.190628633,-3.706816304 2011-10-01,-3.230213386,-3.754532335 2011-11-01,-3.272816067,-3.80953857 2011-12-01,-3.329970341,-3.878488198 2012-01-01,-3.370386059,-3.930876369 2012-02-01,-3.384095898,-3.955538181 2012-03-01,-3.393011736,-3.973463757 2012-04-01,-3.388406988,-3.977845365 2012-05-01,-3.361829686,-3.96458875 2012-06-01,-3.325893139,-3.939251625 2012-07-01,-3.29207136,-3.910963782 2012-08-01,-3.261545767,-3.891913318 2012-09-01,-3.205386896,-3.844684217 2012-10-01,-3.158110158,-3.807887277 2012-11-01,-3.13330826,-3.792338135 2012-12-01,-3.125150378,-3.79450835 2013-01-01,-3.147294103,-3.826165151 2013-02-01,-3.15216038,-3.846506957 2013-03-01,-3.180778132,-3.885070334 2013-04-01,-3.181783779,-3.903656829 2013-05-01,-3.138055536,-3.872420056 2013-06-01,-3.116769821,-3.863460971 2013-07-01,-3.075548416,-3.838054191 2013-08-01,-3.022800423,-3.788877435 2013-09-01,-2.999512783,-3.774246187 2013-10-01,-3.019529983,-3.80370995 2013-11-01,-2.990183976,-3.786898952 2013-12-01,-2.933514412,-3.741652463 2014-01-01,-2.82368144,-3.64766685 2014-02-01,-2.727007689,-3.56043565 2014-03-01,-2.646194248,-3.495143139 2014-04-01,-2.567668335,-3.424354001 2014-05-01,-2.54682069,-3.416446364 2014-06-01,-2.510186455,-3.393210359 2014-07-01,-2.515444215,-3.411730767 2014-08-01,-2.514018693,-3.424392878 2014-09-01,-2.510157275,-3.435093022 2014-10-01,-2.434235551,-3.367560836 2014-11-01,-2.34127008,-3.2875941 2014-12-01,-2.282119437,-3.250960158 2015-01-01,-2.262806256,-3.244218215 2015-02-01,-2.224383312,-3.221003435 2015-03-01,-2.196473359,-3.200267978 2015-04-01,-2.186288945,-3.195136034 2015-05-01,-2.120047546,-3.136581248 2015-06-01,-2.070200288,-3.093841895 2015-07-01,-2.020179446,-3.053862222 2015-08-01,-1.984858589,-3.036020265 2015-09-01,-1.942030325,-3.011730104 2015-10-01,-1.903037058,-2.994387944 2015-11-01,-1.861455541,-2.964636105 2015-12-01,-1.813869148,-2.923830433 2016-01-01,-1.752796433,-2.868863811 2016-02-01,-1.705152364,-2.827534722 2016-03-01,-1.61503633,-2.750679469 2016-04-01,-1.534943689,-2.685677965 2016-05-01,-1.48927639,-2.653184767 2016-06-01,-1.44004982,-2.619090223 2016-07-01,-1.332152754,-2.527079174 2016-08-01,-1.263017279,-2.473187375 2016-09-01,-1.157152286,-2.380099402 2016-10-01,-1.068151923,-2.299942574 2016-11-01,-1.033020708,-2.274718406 2016-12-01,-0.992419383,-2.237510286 2017-01-01,-0.957418375,-2.218856043 2017-02-01,-0.887569555,-2.169602334 2017-03-01,-0.826316788,-2.12285818 2017-04-01,-0.743757803,-2.057617798 2017-05-01,-0.671924648,-2.002688908 2017-06-01,-0.571197594,-1.91613375 2017-07-01,-0.468856324,-1.832125574 2017-08-01,-0.380713378,-1.759831423 2017-09-01,-0.298533436,-1.688250388 2017-10-01,-0.267831159,-1.669988804 2017-11-01,-0.177823517,-1.596466465 2017-12-01,-0.110863339,-1.549701895 2018-01-01,-0.059305535,-1.514608591 2018-02-01,0.006687638,-1.465140759 2018-03-01,0.039394085,-1.4484615 2018-04-01,0.077148296,-1.428555699 2018-05-01,0.152077725,-1.362257916 2018-06-01,0.221694483,-1.302364186 2018-07-01,0.292032159,-1.241271573 2018-08-01,0.384491967,-1.162484842 2018-09-01,0.459587989,-1.100397778 2018-10-01,0.598154114,-0.978704426 2018-11-01,0.698635455,-0.894700665 2018-12-01,0.823784392,-0.790342979 2019-01-01,0.938245748,-0.694519047 2019-02-01,1.001234173,-0.642059736 2019-03-01,1.026802242,-0.634339385 2019-04-01,1.057608199,-0.61691831 2019-05-01,1.100127556,-0.59029486 2019-06-01,1.161528761,-0.550316457 2019-07-01,1.14842566,-0.581091346 2019-08-01,1.220785435,-0.521742513 2019-09-01,1.302672748,-0.460384158 2019-10-01,1.395804404,-0.386237132 2019-11-01,1.49209715,-0.306757584 2019-12-01,1.617488613,-0.198269035 2020-01-01,1.741095622,-0.092353024 2020-02-01,1.846079167,-0.005150768 2020-03-01,1.890799686,0.019264688 2020-04-01,1.059944244,-0.844340006 2020-05-01,0.341267755,-1.604918334 2020-06-01,-0.167228684,-2.163436649 2020-07-01,-0.569885684,-2.615858178 2020-08-01,-0.949513745,-3.03848333 2020-09-01,-1.391898927,-3.500037867 2020-10-01,-1.750329901,-3.869043126 2020-11-01,-2.104644344,-4.235290542 2020-12-01,-2.445888614,-4.589357333 2021-01-01,-2.789566308,-4.950248443 2021-02-01,-3.117105941,-5.297417279 2021-03-01,-3.305516782,-5.497065031 2021-04-01,-2.689555716,-4.87668218 2021-05-01,-2.184892967,-4.357857672 2021-06-01,-1.919862316,-4.063175358 2021-07-01,-1.654993185,-3.772333361 2021-08-01,-1.45967978,-3.557719309 2021-09-01,-1.219303462,-3.318482309 2021-10-01,-1.067568907,-3.173354721 2021-11-01,-0.843763108,-2.964365373 2021-12-01,-0.638892273,-2.764256791 2022-01-01,-0.398471232,-2.527068774 2022-02-01,-0.178530674,-2.312235441 2022-03-01,0.07543902,-2.054218561 2022-04-01,0.337481563,-1.789469257 2022-05-01,0.576635139,-1.556839712 2022-06-01,0.8160865,-1.327296214 2022-07-01,1.021017264,-1.140592055 2022-08-01,1.262497002,-0.921725945 2022-09-01,1.459473156,-0.741649579 2022-10-01,1.60843217,-0.606888581 2022-11-01,1.677171497,-0.539672759 2022-12-01,1.753725982,-0.469799746 2023-01-01,1.909466106,-0.317458312 2023-02-01,2.094594607,-0.134256501 2023-03-01,2.227161653,-0.019339621 2023-04-01,2.379718502,0.113884211 2023-05-01,2.484205031,0.204102316 2023-06-01,2.6112399,0.31676139 2023-07-01,2.698320565,0.404521152
Notes: Panel (a) shows changes relative to 2002 in the share of women ages 25 to 54 that is employed.
Panel (b) shows changes relative to 2002 in the share of women ages 25 to 54 that is not working because of family reasons. An individual is defined as not working for family reasons if they are neither employed nor looking for work, are not retired or disabled, and meet one of the following conditions: 1) their main activity is taking care of family or the household; 2) they didn't look for work because they couldn't arrange childcare, or 3) they didn't look for work because of family responsibilities.
The values are 12-month rolling averages of monthly estimates.
The figure does not show other possible labor force statuses, such as unemployment, retirement, disability, and school.
Source: PWBM calculations from CPS data. Data obtained via IPUMS.
For mothers with a college degree, the employment rate change is essentially the mirror image of the change in family caregiving, plus some additional cyclical variation. Relative to 2002, the share of college-educated mothers not working for family reasons fell 1.9 percentage points by 2007 (compared with a 2 percentage point employment rate increase), 5.3 percentage points by 2017 (compared with a 5.3 percentage point employment rare increase), and 10.3 percentage points by 2023 (compared with a 10.5 percentage point employment rate increase).12 This pattern is unique across the four education/motherhood groups. Strikingly, the share of college-educated mothers not working for family reasons barely increased during the pandemic, and the rate at which these women are shifting from family care to employment appears to have accelerated in the years since.
Figure 5. Labor Force Status of Prime Age Mothers with a College Degree by Child’s Age: 2022-2023 vs. 2002-2003
Occupation Women with a college degree All other workers Management 3.634632063 2.254900299 Healthcare Practitioners and Technicians 1.76096899 0.385551396 Business and Financial Operations 1.756023026 0.772189108 Computer, Mathematical, and Engineering 1.332394985 2.084852679 Personal Care and Services 0.543831259 0.496512847 Community and Social Services 0.464536748 0.013363599 Healthcare Support 0.295863132 0.145166374 Manual Labor and Other 0.273390121 -1.247257521 Legal 0.097503001 -0.024795953 Life, Physical, and Social Science 0.034916126 0.046943182 Arts, Design, Entertainment, Sports, and Media -0.107860998 0.217809031 Office and Administrative Support -1.057644299 -2.657162901 Sales and Related -1.555942667 -1.619757325 Education, Training, and Library -3.285888443 0.238803785
Notes: Panel (a) shows the share of college-educated mothers ages 25 to 54 that is employed, by the age of their youngest child.
Panel (b) shows the share of college-educated mothers ages 25 to 54 that did not work because of family reasons, by the age of their youngest child. An individual is defined as not working for family reasons if they are neither employed nor looking for work, are not retired or disabled, and meet one of the following conditions: 1) their main activity is taking care of family or the household; 2) they didn't look for work because they couldn't arrange childcare, or 3) they didn't look for work because of family responsibilities.
The values are 24-month averages of monthly estimates: the darker lines with squares (labeled 2022-2023) show values averaged over October 2021 to September 2023; the lighter lines with triangles (labeled 2002-2003) show values averaged over calendar years 2002 and 2003. A 24-month average is used to reduce variability from small sample sizes.
The figure does not show other possible labor force statuses, such as unemployment, retirement, disability, and school.
The same estimates for women without a college degree are shown in Appendix Figure A3.
Source: PWBM calculations from CPS data. Data obtained via IPUMS.
College-educated mothers with very young children have seen the greatest shift from family care to employment over the last two decades. Figure 5 breaks down the share of mothers working or engaged in family care by the age of their youngest child, comparing the early 2000s with today. Panel (a) plots the employment rate of mothers with children of different ages, and panel (b) plots the share who do not work because they are taking care of family. Two decades ago, mothers of infants and toddlers were about 20 percentage points less likely to be working than mothers of teenagers, and about 20 percentage points more likely to be out of work to take care of children. Since then, the likelihood that a mother of an infant is employed has increased 10 to 15 percentage points, with corresponding declines in the likelihood that they are taking care of children full time. As shown by the flattening over time of the lines in Figure 5, differences in labor market outcomes by child’s age have shrunk dramatically for college-educated women since the turn of the century.
Educational Attainment and the Employment Penalty for Motherhood
The patterns in Figure 5 point to mothers with newborns or very young children being the main drivers of college-educated mothers’ rising employment. To establish more clearly how the dynamics around childbirth and work have changed in recent decades, we examine what happens to women’s employment in the years immediately after they have a child. We use an event study approach that compares employment outcomes in the years just before and just after the “event” of childbirth, adjusting for any other factors that might affect mothers’ employment. While event study models typically require longitudinal data that tracks the same individual over time, we instead use a synthetic (or “pseudo”) event study method developed in a recent paper by Henrik Kleven, which can be applied to the same cross-sectional CPS data we use for the other figures in this brief.
To evaluate changes over time, we divide the years between 1983 and 2022 (the earliest and latest years for which we have complete data) into 5-year periods. For each 5-year period, we estimate a separate event study that describes how employment outcomes of new mothers differed from other prime age women with the same level of education. These estimates are plotted in Figure 6 for three of the five-year periods: the earliest (1983-1988), the midpoint between then and now (1998-2002), and the most recent five complete years (2018-2022). Panel (a) shows results for college-educated mothers and panel (b) shows results for mothers without a college degree. Appendix Figure A4 shows event study estimates for all five-year periods.
Figure 6. Effect of First Child’s Birth on Mother’s Employment by Educational Attainment
Date,No college degree and no children under age 10,No college degree and has a child under age 10,Has a college degree and no children under age 10,Has a college degree and has a child under age 10 2003-01-01,0.039610118,-0.048303337,-0.102285757,-0.080515498 2003-02-01,0.022790176,-0.133472776,-0.221733824,-0.233279857 2003-03-01,0.017524496,-0.15830247,-0.316968454,-0.411111684 2003-04-01,0.035293275,-0.193040298,-0.397688549,-0.499574136 2003-05-01,0.075129245,-0.264242694,-0.396756674,-0.687942511 2003-06-01,0.125576749,-0.345362447,-0.328132567,-0.722247 2003-07-01,0.160162418,-0.528552941,-0.197268426,-0.62516675 2003-08-01,0.118947739,-0.653438893,-0.182316987,-0.442083529 2003-09-01,0.081769839,-0.863687527,-0.232290957,-0.378405383 2003-10-01,-0.018223831,-1.037697046,-0.296700787,-0.258569052 2003-11-01,-0.072397199,-1.14710548,-0.368430016,-0.090749718 2003-12-01,-0.182534729,-1.283716481,-0.403060666,-0.074770924 2004-01-01,-0.272808677,-1.35059265,-0.43023005,-0.086784719 2004-02-01,-0.345033596,-1.304145393,-0.4382744,-0.099731974 2004-03-01,-0.444456712,-1.305815834,-0.461917978,-0.093135148 2004-04-01,-0.498665658,-1.391698104,-0.444086463,-0.133259114 2004-05-01,-0.522025827,-1.394636124,-0.426614685,-0.163125353 2004-06-01,-0.537650057,-1.408343373,-0.421462712,-0.30498497 2004-07-01,-0.528521193,-1.335304346,-0.341575888,-0.348769845 2004-08-01,-0.478469247,-1.267823315,-0.303709922,-0.468339463 2004-09-01,-0.430277447,-1.23518813,-0.225894023,-0.409917012 2004-10-01,-0.373649045,-1.173807515,-0.138669001,-0.317357094 2004-11-01,-0.370361814,-1.141647652,-0.048466458,-0.220105254 2004-12-01,-0.379033983,-1.111874549,0.017953234,-0.026869901 2005-01-01,-0.451261834,-1.079749308,0.183949024,0.234142505 2005-02-01,-0.45183738,-1.155242148,0.260169161,0.404788872 2005-03-01,-0.451778898,-1.248780601,0.294394109,0.496788776 2005-04-01,-0.484698231,-1.272957203,0.323142841,0.682202936 2005-05-01,-0.501334058,-1.275271775,0.350057056,0.81111223 2005-06-01,-0.56641255,-1.269472633,0.361326715,0.934531092 2005-07-01,-0.594212977,-1.259290596,0.349525149,0.975767129 2005-08-01,-0.596256086,-1.333144404,0.353314185,1.028353388 2005-09-01,-0.60432934,-1.31027156,0.419599735,1.039144155 2005-10-01,-0.645324535,-1.299963553,0.460304563,1.03999389 2005-11-01,-0.696386932,-1.273218084,0.397879569,1.049787133 2005-12-01,-0.687517569,-1.292634238,0.382777961,1.031150639 2006-01-01,-0.653301672,-1.408691623,0.323970583,1.027504405 2006-02-01,-0.650430983,-1.428177622,0.335632439,1.126264281 2006-03-01,-0.630443472,-1.420362122,0.387004198,1.252695535 2006-04-01,-0.630585832,-1.41843828,0.400965032,1.318027683 2006-05-01,-0.607523624,-1.417277617,0.429648362,1.421394344 2006-06-01,-0.520154956,-1.388131011,0.453627777,1.518564086 2006-07-01,-0.475779745,-1.333518912,0.4618996,1.603200457 2006-08-01,-0.478905022,-1.184252697,0.455166083,1.804806518 2006-09-01,-0.4853768,-1.141099855,0.420832634,2.031437959 2006-10-01,-0.413300536,-1.101178671,0.433652151,2.287055325 2006-11-01,-0.365360406,-1.05995317,0.470271106,2.437065376 2006-12-01,-0.33634051,-0.9577208,0.439858029,2.537026791 2007-01-01,-0.258033837,-0.786659133,0.395916784,2.503396402 2007-02-01,-0.290406653,-0.637021106,0.381406335,2.360137712 2007-03-01,-0.222036462,-0.476859592,0.349515027,2.257450284 2007-04-01,-0.230785314,-0.300530745,0.360894328,2.073832496 2007-05-01,-0.253824475,-0.239141475,0.375737944,2.014266841 2007-06-01,-0.308345282,-0.231694072,0.43758269,2.071282377 2007-07-01,-0.377872944,-0.268657624,0.391512289,2.157494392 2007-08-01,-0.391252232,-0.279842722,0.416199333,2.159733971 2007-09-01,-0.370320081,-0.255724591,0.397375297,2.131055593 2007-10-01,-0.448111203,-0.225931357,0.356112305,2.031545715 2007-11-01,-0.460050496,-0.192315698,0.386557368,1.998573902 2007-12-01,-0.49782934,-0.224136336,0.402496239,2.032989896 2008-01-01,-0.55592757,-0.214001751,0.430110061,2.101758925 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2012-02-01,-5.479463903,-5.492533658,-2.373750698,2.194305692 2012-03-01,-5.562893874,-5.442356658,-2.356272146,2.23873384 2012-04-01,-5.631327022,-5.33644756,-2.302139398,2.188183175 2012-05-01,-5.680375361,-5.235869714,-2.255367714,2.208353149 2012-06-01,-5.680619215,-5.09222524,-2.302328765,2.206344058 2012-07-01,-5.651111956,-5.080929609,-2.239066044,2.189690873 2012-08-01,-5.606740472,-5.166693456,-2.218045282,2.321497394 2012-09-01,-5.536739166,-5.234219325,-2.166413493,2.49114098 2012-10-01,-5.561184569,-5.170841614,-2.088839764,2.625274029 2012-11-01,-5.620962047,-5.108560484,-1.987521285,2.655366337 2012-12-01,-5.671172499,-5.016574037,-1.973529115,2.642460751 2013-01-01,-5.760778795,-5.032738113,-1.928277202,2.634750643 2013-02-01,-5.749091794,-5.133723009,-1.899081176,2.551449174 2013-03-01,-5.746941111,-5.266569967,-1.967537657,2.576576077 2013-04-01,-5.683635718,-5.431014091,-2.062822507,2.648687345 2013-05-01,-5.573594864,-5.429072751,-2.131510511,2.633493067 2013-06-01,-5.538708025,-5.525079182,-2.138378521,2.759882672 2013-07-01,-5.508968666,-5.482406142,-2.165134582,2.812979373 2013-08-01,-5.479913209,-5.443682389,-2.099035114,2.861907162 2013-09-01,-5.509726764,-5.324911918,-2.12962853,2.879808981 2013-10-01,-5.571153209,-5.362264028,-2.200652349,3.016387519 2013-11-01,-5.595145112,-5.420668759,-2.201627617,3.290316185 2013-12-01,-5.579013387,-5.432462724,-2.1980616,3.607916649 2014-01-01,-5.565294553,-5.298065727,-2.114077716,3.951000283 2014-02-01,-5.506499087,-5.16720988,-2.109125511,4.234806839 2014-03-01,-5.449516627,-5.099179094,-2.043378302,4.351939302 2014-04-01,-5.393164643,-4.99961485,-1.977255394,4.432395002 2014-05-01,-5.418916344,-5.029335285,-1.927961616,4.531517042 2014-06-01,-5.350019532,-5.017907824,-1.9530227,4.501325384 2014-07-01,-5.326669271,-5.05350906,-2.034046238,4.468366278 2014-08-01,-5.272461821,-5.072660633,-2.113225178,4.370676718 2014-09-01,-5.210454095,-5.130121337,-2.158250807,4.302781412 2014-10-01,-5.110554964,-5.061280469,-2.099523546,4.311525209 2014-11-01,-4.966836645,-4.999858741,-2.094579345,4.423487419 2014-12-01,-4.895826095,-5.003544186,-2.029763479,4.406203015 2015-01-01,-4.843721318,-4.994627497,-2.03816746,4.323545667 2015-02-01,-4.839863783,-4.942184904,-1.986591172,4.30179658 2015-03-01,-4.892141493,-4.818542251,-1.903831837,4.282188345 2015-04-01,-4.942802362,-4.71623685,-1.884502177,4.286154715 2015-05-01,-4.899657349,-4.566992694,-1.838057232,4.266471616 2015-06-01,-4.867303907,-4.485891329,-1.806280784,4.323595678 2015-07-01,-4.854641008,-4.505222753,-1.660772327,4.334180455 2015-08-01,-4.905788458,-4.431253117,-1.58733467,4.390734994 2015-09-01,-4.958566426,-4.316211855,-1.524633667,4.450150057 2015-10-01,-5.018005989,-4.178613544,-1.440029161,4.413648957 2015-11-01,-5.023247502,-4.105486191,-1.358037198,4.374138823 2015-12-01,-5.053713956,-3.902554396,-1.301702242,4.338055104 2016-01-01,-5.034598107,-3.707739373,-1.255343894,4.284280484 2016-02-01,-5.012220426,-3.543589786,-1.246900523,4.259792024 2016-03-01,-4.947770563,-3.401628076,-1.215763251,4.330474581 2016-04-01,-4.904797994,-3.312724978,-1.158974891,4.427551785 2016-05-01,-4.875009015,-3.25319999,-1.185826902,4.51415285 2016-06-01,-4.899991132,-3.214501901,-1.077234903,4.537433554 2016-07-01,-4.789345625,-3.026437803,-1.09600062,4.620699114 2016-08-01,-4.756169209,-2.827050536,-1.128063513,4.643279361 2016-09-01,-4.7060205,-2.657215916,-1.0469426,4.736286332 2016-10-01,-4.617507023,-2.544166909,-1.008428983,4.761450873 2016-11-01,-4.634357252,-2.391066047,-0.982350444,4.706599909 2016-12-01,-4.581412298,-2.292244217,-1.002932888,4.691235131 2017-01-01,-4.550909443,-2.291343835,-1.001711358,4.71378762 2017-02-01,-4.495028229,-2.263685594,-0.962238982,4.759721753 2017-03-01,-4.409016193,-2.253070515,-0.918977346,4.722091193 2017-04-01,-4.293828421,-2.179456626,-0.852404473,4.605579496 2017-05-01,-4.22211671,-2.161605588,-0.792228903,4.64166587 2017-06-01,-4.122959063,-1.997059543,-0.8057446,4.772605087 2017-07-01,-4.112312431,-1.861842762,-0.703124425,4.940326151 2017-08-01,-4.010904146,-1.887656666,-0.633050711,5.047576588 2017-09-01,-3.89277097,-1.892295281,-0.600251025,5.112218179 2017-10-01,-3.869271368,-1.856540963,-0.635581511,5.160111732 2017-11-01,-3.773910483,-1.75005869,-0.663543967,5.275132735 2017-12-01,-3.711823561,-1.640978398,-0.680019719,5.25957991 2018-01-01,-3.629804408,-1.569208662,-0.71742938,5.2218646 2018-02-01,-3.518557368,-1.616124149,-0.661667922,5.23528086 2018-03-01,-3.4605532,-1.674928771,-0.622128887,5.206477653 2018-04-01,-3.392561104,-1.744777335,-0.635678411,5.270833828 2018-05-01,-3.314933105,-1.64674842,-0.579164637,5.288514056 2018-06-01,-3.241739313,-1.520908265,-0.551156935,5.273178948 2018-07-01,-3.131915628,-1.440713307,-0.552475388,5.282220344 2018-08-01,-3.092238309,-1.336719436,-0.413178929,5.326731348 2018-09-01,-3.030275258,-1.214990014,-0.371144196,5.352572763 2018-10-01,-2.901207003,-1.067032376,-0.289191182,5.501811067 2018-11-01,-2.831692271,-0.984139958,-0.211867815,5.63536959 2018-12-01,-2.73436595,-0.992155673,-0.08499298,5.886888884 2019-01-01,-2.624679186,-1.003579554,0.048148678,6.007637948 2019-02-01,-2.567557746,-0.975910676,0.112832902,6.037230444 2019-03-01,-2.588474199,-0.936692143,0.108566581,6.123700865 2019-04-01,-2.607342857,-0.890604476,0.138978708,6.195110309 2019-05-01,-2.598804359,-0.830144536,0.168881461,6.247976789 2019-06-01,-2.615365303,-0.773053938,0.267639103,6.303840606 2019-07-01,-2.651511832,-0.76130406,0.215475598,6.308458081 2019-08-01,-2.593381257,-0.6104386,0.168885121,6.465352632 2019-09-01,-2.54539144,-0.522711487,0.19734267,6.61448417 2019-10-01,-2.501397271,-0.442143964,0.249830799,6.812927114 2019-11-01,-2.463224102,-0.390324029,0.353578967,6.983498266 2019-12-01,-2.33395913,-0.299653044,0.419069892,7.138480354 2020-01-01,-2.248676,-0.182526815,0.538576708,7.274504835 2020-02-01,-2.166245708,-0.00198178,0.557914585,7.378314066 2020-03-01,-2.110754361,-0.022796992,0.55930439,7.373784478 2020-04-01,-3.207211695,-1.088301425,-0.065773731,6.900642152 2020-05-01,-4.116552639,-2.156082489,-0.681505676,6.560772083 2020-06-01,-4.73903287,-2.997296477,-1.186446396,6.396725797 2020-07-01,-5.31404526,-3.48671912,-1.584315456,6.181590527 2020-08-01,-5.819115268,-4.036778784,-1.899939054,5.896754975 2020-09-01,-6.397974438,-4.636296887,-2.203609534,5.563448149 2020-10-01,-6.786104081,-5.199426496,-2.421329215,5.148960126 2020-11-01,-7.132228714,-5.659370628,-2.750487069,4.779010235 2020-12-01,-7.554250821,-6.115715625,-2.994408308,4.506402252 2021-01-01,-7.997265885,-6.598013258,-3.240031999,4.247053354 2021-02-01,-8.437129447,-7.13668756,-3.44721403,4.080052487 2021-03-01,-8.673535936,-7.468694801,-3.593609261,4.017824878 2021-04-01,-7.865628529,-6.795784491,-3.170757882,4.491954213 2021-05-01,-7.230165831,-6.24460398,-2.792547672,4.965941998 2021-06-01,-6.936825246,-5.927590574,-2.543596308,5.332100788 2021-07-01,-6.633691268,-5.77868446,-2.187971665,5.601112781 2021-08-01,-6.367249539,-5.694470393,-1.922611197,5.717852034 2021-09-01,-6.016370814,-5.596870837,-1.695759518,5.846099723 2021-10-01,-5.826519906,-5.506457023,-1.612330301,6.06610282 2021-11-01,-5.622988938,-5.296212668,-1.418645517,6.31348322 2021-12-01,-5.439839719,-5.067443174,-1.270288066,6.614012621 2022-01-01,-5.199164687,-4.816783818,-1.142499454,7.057730724 2022-02-01,-4.968562037,-4.547921869,-0.99787159,7.314509425 2022-03-01,-4.695198547,-4.252053051,-0.81215489,7.672737696 2022-04-01,-4.448235196,-3.879194469,-0.580865517,7.925216375 2022-05-01,-4.225511494,-3.511236002,-0.339979911,8.050086202 2022-06-01,-3.886647989,-3.235986189,-0.139481821,8.022645418 2022-07-01,-3.671100765,-2.906176108,-0.020420072,8.126442044 2022-08-01,-3.486946253,-2.468238411,0.111414113,8.390664837 2022-09-01,-3.352158856,-1.993966336,0.172606178,8.579540803 2022-10-01,-3.301568823,-1.621220904,0.238380495,8.78046985 2022-11-01,-3.284399769,-1.448539909,0.264459266,8.938931316 2022-12-01,-3.179709373,-1.36391549,0.268355821,9.030415252 2023-01-01,-2.957189915,-1.096109855,0.287413358,9.133822309 2023-02-01,-2.747367498,-0.862686167,0.360955249,9.418458302 2023-03-01,-2.667991659,-0.573422971,0.397885618,9.562551713 2023-04-01,-2.508390993,-0.323954981,0.420935955,9.724028444 2023-05-01,-2.420362546,-0.071444176,0.41693142,9.789241757 2023-06-01,-2.338161592,0.223471984,0.425075228,9.955377455 2023-07-01,-2.306380341,0.4074187,0.472427016,10.12914988
Date,No college degree and no children under age 10,No college degree and has a child under age 10,Has a college degree and no children under age 10,Has a college degree and has a child under age 10 2003-01-01,-0.009166879,0.137766237,0.039697686,0.112413887 2003-02-01,0.008464314,0.207252854,0.071538525,0.19381443 2003-03-01,-0.042285959,0.264714713,0.126591187,0.344115034 2003-04-01,-0.037178628,0.329454703,0.138029469,0.358753977 2003-05-01,-0.069021965,0.403261224,0.109709116,0.38889322 2003-06-01,-0.126409951,0.469056079,0.077091033,0.359491207 2003-07-01,-0.15463587,0.588419853,0.024329097,0.261329843 2003-08-01,-0.160345745,0.684388396,0.025841894,0.102583867 2003-09-01,-0.173913732,0.815544376,0.069488975,0.039318167 2003-10-01,-0.157405521,0.985215384,0.089307505,-0.052893242 2003-11-01,-0.1377663,1.080341038,0.134067488,-0.122920204 2003-12-01,-0.111470311,1.217557755,0.153197736,-0.150436882 2004-01-01,-0.049504124,1.186917564,0.182054374,-0.149585211 2004-02-01,-0.004691797,1.176210201,0.21786388,-0.063964336 2004-03-01,0.078683628,1.085031276,0.220574301,-0.080979179 2004-04-01,0.06871297,1.102868862,0.182833506,-0.009373008 2004-05-01,0.04839831,1.157988965,0.120437661,0.087018078 2004-06-01,0.05394423,1.219009826,0.091270555,0.192196444 2004-07-01,0.048564715,1.199090515,0.092242355,0.220049216 2004-08-01,0.027613451,1.18058276,0.084077463,0.320772789 2004-09-01,-0.008880398,1.165139391,0.06240616,0.333550044 2004-10-01,-0.040485329,1.102625372,0.050299388,0.193889882 2004-11-01,-0.048733235,1.08615682,0.056522168,0.055393028 2004-12-01,-0.040067792,1.092408053,0.035289921,-0.142024662 2005-01-01,-0.003319282,1.103150469,-0.01776442,-0.373774728 2005-02-01,0.019840564,1.140786916,-0.018946834,-0.550356021 2005-03-01,0.08819695,1.275536711,0.019918514,-0.648016326 2005-04-01,0.15984293,1.282416632,0.060777054,-0.88623701 2005-05-01,0.221293557,1.251160846,0.11785492,-1.057154407 2005-06-01,0.292179697,1.2173014,0.140403463,-1.133664167 2005-07-01,0.311428101,1.15937729,0.107800291,-1.13672724 2005-08-01,0.301691419,1.176112768,0.126972051,-1.165464917 2005-09-01,0.297540692,1.137332539,0.109610437,-1.250793926 2005-10-01,0.318643113,1.104498778,0.051158476,-1.212520681 2005-11-01,0.345071585,1.081808427,0.056596797,-1.241103263 2005-12-01,0.350253262,1.10774019,0.07539431,-1.194177989 2006-01-01,0.339856801,1.200399392,0.100817754,-1.180403636 2006-02-01,0.319537654,1.265074289,0.093343287,-1.256636907 2006-03-01,0.233348211,1.330583167,0.032255599,-1.305997065 2006-04-01,0.18549443,1.385981909,0.048952675,-1.268252723 2006-05-01,0.134963401,1.377452342,0.058750396,-1.270820901 2006-06-01,0.078772211,1.388919625,0.106356596,-1.309052007 2006-07-01,0.043617053,1.385632071,0.124025438,-1.334794275 2006-08-01,0.057221384,1.263846627,0.148429104,-1.436730866 2006-09-01,0.06939892,1.213965901,0.169461426,-1.616104006 2006-10-01,0.060322802,1.185729747,0.244132985,-1.817630807 2006-11-01,0.045143386,1.131435337,0.263002705,-1.934306819 2006-12-01,-0.012057234,1.067518433,0.29450362,-2.046777841 2007-01-01,-0.070577934,0.95939394,0.361365335,-2.034432026 2007-02-01,-0.085459485,0.864921773,0.387690809,-1.880441259 2007-03-01,-0.11626073,0.719320384,0.430332369,-1.809363892 2007-04-01,-0.111758349,0.576992314,0.444050384,-1.683699719 2007-05-01,-0.082326822,0.508184583,0.433383637,-1.665162321 2007-06-01,-0.087100334,0.535472943,0.370970676,-1.729092719 2007-07-01,-0.064522229,0.596301778,0.368645547,-1.814944022 2007-08-01,-0.098538611,0.623520847,0.323815923,-1.879953679 2007-09-01,-0.139501354,0.629621689,0.335899057,-1.837194697 2007-10-01,-0.171851212,0.647850806,0.324679072,-1.789567494 2007-11-01,-0.228312558,0.621072252,0.259090893,-1.812023055 2007-12-01,-0.262005014,0.583665705,0.234614946,-1.867791973 2008-01-01,-0.276815551,0.558995842,0.192668023,-1.957540542 2008-02-01,-0.336327063,0.560806833,0.185411692,-2.155605995 2008-03-01,-0.349983093,0.617617654,0.128853119,-2.391255103 2008-04-01,-0.403171906,0.755452018,0.027700577,-2.673974214 2008-05-01,-0.443484338,0.875328203,-0.020312078,-2.954925079 2008-06-01,-0.471771598,0.851941091,-0.071194314,-3.189976813 2008-07-01,-0.535520188,0.9283959,-0.094041232,-3.36878439 2008-08-01,-0.57639562,0.968101265,-0.116666101,-3.51959061 2008-09-01,-0.589870331,1.026742905,-0.12580715,-3.681641688 2008-10-01,-0.60220766,1.020361329,-0.147390937,-3.676024042 2008-11-01,-0.611808252,1.034161647,-0.155495908,-3.689290988 2008-12-01,-0.537882042,0.995088524,-0.175388487,-3.654461427 2009-01-01,-0.495335362,0.978129476,-0.210161527,-3.605471988 2009-02-01,-0.481366823,0.943801001,-0.26112951,-3.598388284 2009-03-01,-0.486178945,0.891014677,-0.271961648,-3.446395157 2009-04-01,-0.532969171,0.894767167,-0.281064822,-3.469584221 2009-05-01,-0.531110641,0.90428901,-0.273117976,-3.463548195 2009-06-01,-0.552131531,0.91921446,-0.276246913,-3.554540142 2009-07-01,-0.557319479,0.79930723,-0.263363473,-3.677975006 2009-08-01,-0.508326876,0.810910664,-0.265208398,-3.819119719 2009-09-01,-0.455692536,0.755297121,-0.268832482,-3.967482658 2009-10-01,-0.388807191,0.809089633,-0.243373739,-4.136390591 2009-11-01,-0.358974275,0.848625891,-0.181626324,-4.245407058 2009-12-01,-0.360539332,0.931006802,-0.146669795,-4.385296793 2010-01-01,-0.446631517,1.031068014,-0.108378242,-4.596603698 2010-02-01,-0.440623196,1.01206155,-0.05305576,-4.745953534 2010-03-01,-0.453971015,0.977146941,0.017559254,-4.904166888 2010-04-01,-0.470594068,0.844129398,0.059971786,-4.926938061 2010-05-01,-0.471275097,0.822457669,0.125606249,-4.918984067 2010-06-01,-0.452221138,0.802926119,0.176017868,-4.805045881 2010-07-01,-0.381823643,0.839700442,0.189834436,-4.738638012 2010-08-01,-0.366863995,0.778418085,0.20665736,-4.535542376 2010-09-01,-0.368976953,0.744071526,0.232323939,-4.364280094 2010-10-01,-0.385520422,0.617723166,0.26825508,-4.406026639 2010-11-01,-0.420713389,0.545529862,0.271619664,-4.274641203 2010-12-01,-0.442195512,0.517935798,0.27670172,-4.305187204 2011-01-01,-0.406793265,0.470438342,0.298415755,-4.286686641 2011-02-01,-0.35588542,0.556408383,0.306011914,-4.26193758 2011-03-01,-0.31783322,0.635861528,0.253964383,-4.288089536 2011-04-01,-0.222725871,0.651689476,0.246881242,-4.295978088 2011-05-01,-0.156707393,0.644796954,0.196677652,-4.293749358 2011-06-01,-0.108271163,0.605856621,0.152770006,-4.24254262 2011-07-01,-0.067560053,0.587971442,0.136800405,-4.225459697 2011-08-01,-0.076347092,0.571907064,0.171467006,-4.32060072 2011-09-01,-0.087728531,0.610068834,0.140452482,-4.268746877 2011-10-01,-0.139188539,0.72975647,0.115306552,-4.055877005 2011-11-01,-0.123987028,0.829034762,0.135921403,-3.955807981 2011-12-01,-0.107877196,0.879385741,0.158793217,-3.769785379 2012-01-01,-0.117804725,0.905266762,0.179200607,-3.689908732 2012-02-01,-0.145811632,0.861071164,0.209418604,-3.714687435 2012-03-01,-0.135338202,0.843476124,0.262101908,-3.715466112 2012-04-01,-0.1064979,0.870004373,0.321487679,-3.70673955 2012-05-01,-0.116147222,0.814736256,0.314199623,-3.685511983 2012-06-01,-0.090807412,0.789643457,0.352055563,-3.700501721 2012-07-01,-0.156544706,0.811931347,0.344066536,-3.797344378 2012-08-01,-0.149158574,0.926294131,0.315644993,-3.91894779 2012-09-01,-0.143548148,1.014555927,0.304995354,-4.071075867 2012-10-01,-0.061040165,1.018822092,0.300446979,-4.171980526 2012-11-01,0.033635427,1.016749055,0.286776524,-4.20181614 2012-12-01,0.083182135,0.944788757,0.26790687,-4.249992765 2013-01-01,0.134113574,0.992624773,0.299583358,-4.223027402 2013-02-01,0.173749636,1.150933556,0.292910954,-4.198781312 2013-03-01,0.20106672,1.283827125,0.33560671,-4.256014577 2013-04-01,0.212800266,1.512376215,0.388263499,-4.326637849 2013-05-01,0.216568003,1.631193218,0.462039284,-4.353595172 2013-06-01,0.19405604,1.724825625,0.509038224,-4.504902792 2013-07-01,0.218410553,1.740690936,0.55762726,-4.489461528 2013-08-01,0.199738445,1.776431246,0.543847327,-4.400038086 2013-09-01,0.187258043,1.849030419,0.553578438,-4.410716258 2013-10-01,0.180526263,2.020873401,0.55314336,-4.606199693 2013-11-01,0.177404877,2.155916615,0.545281386,-4.845512112 2013-12-01,0.186425801,2.306766841,0.577634183,-5.057952442 2014-01-01,0.25190825,2.336564911,0.536708391,-5.327831771 2014-02-01,0.253040124,2.312331387,0.517147235,-5.481828906 2014-03-01,0.285571463,2.319880356,0.505458252,-5.584747406 2014-04-01,0.301906762,2.295669777,0.481400155,-5.606961284 2014-05-01,0.319941924,2.427045572,0.423306461,-5.603612123 2014-06-01,0.350520872,2.580282577,0.437050215,-5.482377956 2014-07-01,0.338209323,2.774296118,0.440780637,-5.348346828 2014-08-01,0.362589426,2.857037221,0.462755564,-5.370348902 2014-09-01,0.39513037,2.915852878,0.495516076,-5.247111289 2014-10-01,0.406215544,2.886798361,0.481742519,-5.145375759 2014-11-01,0.413251325,2.917867051,0.507136991,-5.161948478 2014-12-01,0.460020088,3.007598749,0.507234081,-5.106304778 2015-01-01,0.459395803,3.061333646,0.535839752,-5.103447872 2015-02-01,0.506337438,3.092177603,0.534376842,-5.058279046 2015-03-01,0.557904637,3.106558002,0.541233978,-4.888228461 2015-04-01,0.607703394,3.057357377,0.537968643,-4.794101319 2015-05-01,0.667815332,2.945594988,0.572621491,-4.76787912 2015-06-01,0.738242409,2.906440931,0.585419987,-4.792060474 2015-07-01,0.843920542,2.955998476,0.543545537,-4.813286026 2015-08-01,0.937980597,3.007176162,0.547635544,-4.755197064 2015-09-01,0.994291857,3.007526201,0.544314407,-4.792640215 2015-10-01,1.034530679,2.953956034,0.550627718,-4.75202463 2015-11-01,1.034848401,2.924131718,0.534032253,-4.709488577 2015-12-01,1.076478338,2.805126013,0.495248882,-4.653942475 2016-01-01,1.129691661,2.688398623,0.46460763,-4.562817635 2016-02-01,1.143164793,2.618553665,0.451865387,-4.528591583 2016-03-01,1.144026206,2.511491903,0.390629701,-4.663919017 2016-04-01,1.142536545,2.481370439,0.334911002,-4.796171116 2016-05-01,1.107392798,2.517621743,0.319892522,-4.893206127 2016-06-01,1.101771448,2.532195588,0.260240247,-4.951518547 2016-07-01,1.057643473,2.429543092,0.284809808,-5.011009225 2016-08-01,1.025867893,2.242054722,0.3265783,-5.048346457 2016-09-01,1.021842981,2.126119752,0.336271397,-5.127823535 2016-10-01,0.982381064,2.08367849,0.362091742,-5.122112012 2016-11-01,0.97898307,2.011019856,0.378963569,-5.075965194 2016-12-01,0.9386191,1.935128359,0.423477567,-5.075921526 2017-01-01,0.893388809,1.952482978,0.431400146,-5.004745026 2017-02-01,0.882995844,1.90028537,0.405357112,-5.053637581 2017-03-01,0.852571516,1.942613665,0.369284219,-5.005010462 2017-04-01,0.816437864,1.897271764,0.372951982,-4.937422896 2017-05-01,0.7859878,1.841753519,0.333152851,-4.96116183 2017-06-01,0.722292028,1.75841255,0.333243082,-5.031529068 2017-07-01,0.732252924,1.672717836,0.272144757,-5.126913019 2017-08-01,0.710406086,1.74459711,0.202808422,-5.201241591 2017-09-01,0.714808505,1.76416886,0.176706542,-5.230172602 2017-10-01,0.780654537,1.798851365,0.16630451,-5.242500089 2017-11-01,0.79628246,1.739739365,0.161875883,-5.319801063 2017-12-01,0.760978093,1.732247982,0.153221781,-5.280479335 2018-01-01,0.771874469,1.73387255,0.142529383,-5.289749795 2018-02-01,0.759439892,1.805595717,0.116158587,-5.251782427 2018-03-01,0.745539944,1.898177721,0.115777848,-5.22815932 2018-04-01,0.712276767,1.994606909,0.141119665,-5.22907441 2018-05-01,0.748370239,2.058784861,0.140315905,-5.195540998 2018-06-01,0.750383581,1.9768869,0.111842475,-5.125405982 2018-07-01,0.712589244,1.941781013,0.110411338,-5.179586593 2018-08-01,0.773338614,1.885177433,0.081042387,-5.22034405 2018-09-01,0.81049992,1.886610368,0.009551012,-5.279125114 2018-10-01,0.808353171,1.782693923,-0.054737523,-5.402375521 2018-11-01,0.804844428,1.789996771,-0.111472642,-5.52236209 2018-12-01,0.797984746,1.817737178,-0.166057047,-5.738717062 2019-01-01,0.777797356,1.87203304,-0.209215785,-5.85757155 2019-02-01,0.76161505,1.926449559,-0.205820801,-5.978984642 2019-03-01,0.771566092,1.957282864,-0.215666408,-6.0902897 2019-04-01,0.844350934,1.960782651,-0.245206113,-6.156300626 2019-05-01,0.892115198,1.910020468,-0.267219059,-6.222243964 2019-06-01,0.96517685,1.915491746,-0.245161491,-6.310779685 2019-07-01,1.054972506,1.949183497,-0.199609827,-6.265120655 2019-08-01,1.029877148,1.941199581,-0.130400633,-6.364071603 2019-09-01,0.990785788,1.903117767,-0.091473678,-6.456698775 2019-10-01,0.986465922,1.868163978,-0.094350119,-6.663569889 2019-11-01,0.961254587,1.888612077,-0.115178932,-6.835616827 2019-12-01,0.899440096,1.834249984,-0.163504278,-6.991310728 2020-01-01,0.849535408,1.70780951,-0.198910057,-7.071027142 2020-02-01,0.819075705,1.611748919,-0.219593521,-7.113683801 2020-03-01,0.778953077,1.60923987,-0.230728044,-7.10733291 2020-04-01,0.907163143,1.794860386,-0.231155171,-7.100757591 2020-05-01,0.956147823,2.047891663,-0.168259985,-7.146903161 2020-06-01,0.992156081,2.242932579,-0.133795046,-7.202941971 2020-07-01,0.971431349,2.248719948,-0.132297942,-7.306107773 2020-08-01,1.001669515,2.440772114,-0.151803816,-7.280631339 2020-09-01,1.121445802,2.721741951,-0.111974383,-7.122140338 2020-10-01,1.205563182,3.077315896,-0.091757702,-6.839858776 2020-11-01,1.32423896,3.356677669,-0.03076255,-6.583954976 2020-12-01,1.423312033,3.720154154,0.070763388,-6.419872697 2021-01-01,1.527472338,4.084008145,0.118061731,-6.338794975 2021-02-01,1.666212304,4.39023069,0.160814286,-6.230465468 2021-03-01,1.760735506,4.621929923,0.221262754,-6.236807534 2021-04-01,1.670849852,4.728890191,0.247395673,-6.247156243 2021-05-01,1.686566082,4.841055357,0.290447869,-6.352249082 2021-06-01,1.716477081,4.980910606,0.305211854,-6.50157567 2021-07-01,1.767580759,5.0717485,0.29938003,-6.517044314 2021-08-01,1.760341355,5.154000686,0.294951363,-6.470512715 2021-09-01,1.663759546,5.143212383,0.273560218,-6.468079712 2021-10-01,1.563641316,5.069093242,0.319898713,-6.573429503 2021-11-01,1.464383811,4.978808938,0.305223379,-6.726558633 2021-12-01,1.479371205,4.830117641,0.279973902,-6.901641879 2022-01-01,1.436945935,4.773718396,0.263720994,-7.173465889 2022-02-01,1.37606487,4.714911955,0.257959906,-7.339713744 2022-03-01,1.310283824,4.547938979,0.202320082,-7.530789228 2022-04-01,1.311590547,4.394534297,0.134584481,-7.766129135 2022-05-01,1.217866579,4.192421311,0.045739541,-7.881198207 2022-06-01,1.092339742,4.079031738,-0.029486139,-7.884544018 2022-07-01,1.025852114,4.007331247,-0.058172816,-7.993795347 2022-08-01,0.978976014,3.773620584,-0.147384656,-8.178084467 2022-09-01,0.952132687,3.604866875,-0.174342237,-8.337378034 2022-10-01,0.99851987,3.398174399,-0.188774474,-8.510299469 2022-11-01,0.996123074,3.305481399,-0.195377739,-8.643959206 2022-12-01,0.954796134,3.303142183,-0.19695184,-8.744060238 2023-01-01,0.878272932,3.026673086,-0.206422695,-8.84681298 2023-02-01,0.798807164,2.836592705,-0.272417014,-9.156878469 2023-03-01,0.82260633,2.672726775,-0.295041186,-9.346266302 2023-04-01,0.768491035,2.356774436,-0.280660297,-9.545747364 2023-05-01,0.730362208,2.154989619,-0.249757671,-9.635237564 2023-06-01,0.713152603,1.907004903,-0.259443242,-9.804401179 2023-07-01,0.684411308,1.789231852,-0.303125642,-9.946550219
Notes: The figure shows the estimated effect of a first child's birth on the probability that a woman is employed, by education. The effect is estimated using the synthetic event study approach developed in Kleven (2023). The shaded areas are 95% confidence intervals based on robust standard errors.
The figure shows estimates for selected 5-year periods to highlight changes over time. Estimates for all 5-year periods since 1983-1987 and for men are shown in Appendix Figure A4.
Source: PWBM estimates from CPS data. Data obtained via IPUMS.
For women with and without a college degree, the likelihood of working falls sharply in the year of a first childbirth and remains depressed throughout the next ten years.13 This pattern is specific to women: as can be seen in Appendix Figure A4, men are just as likely to work in the years after their first child’s birth as in the years leading up to it.
However, Figure 6 shows significant differences over time between more and less educated women. In the mid-1980s, the effect of childbirth on a mother’s likelihood of working was similar for both groups. Over the next two decades, the employment loss associated with childbirth shrunk for both, but by about twice as much for women without a college degree. From the early 2000s to today, that pattern reversed: women without a degree saw essentially no change in employment loss, while women with a degree became substantially less likely to stop working after having their first child. The recent gains for college-educated women are particularly stark for the years immediately after childbirth.
Figure 7 presents these trends more comprehensively. For each five-year period since 1983, we calculate the child penalty for motherhood, defined as the difference in the employment effect of having a child between fathers and mothers (see the notes to Figure 7 for a summary of how the penalty is calculated). A larger positive penalty means that women’s employment falls by more relative to men’s after a child is born. Panel (a) plots the short-term penalty – the effect over the first five years after childbirth – and panel (b) plots the long-term penalty – the effect over the subsequent six years.
Figure 7. The Child Penalty by Educational Attainment
Occupation Women with a college degree and no children under age 10 Women with a college degree and a child under age 10 Management 2.867599276 5.082560821 Healthcare Practitioners and Technicians 0.966463746 3.458889198 Business and Financial Operations 1.844171419 1.513781263 Computer, Mathematical, and Engineering 1.367620617 1.179754871 Community and Social Services 0.264465346 0.850871447 Legal -0.17674877 0.656519649 Healthcare Support 0.286424019 0.300755187 Life, Physical, and Social Science -0.086946125 0.247370867 Personal Care and Services 0.711808894 0.196394107 Manual Labor and Other 0.369505686 -0.044214505 Arts, Design, Entertainment, Sports, and Media -0.131975866 -0.110920971 Office and Administrative Support -1.295032649 -0.726602261 Education, Training, and Library -4.490119386 -0.925422879 Sales and Related -1.621748525 -1.475815985
Notes: The figure shows the child penalty on employment over time, by education. A child penalty is defined as the effect of having a child on women relative to men. The short-term penalty shows the effect over the first five years after a first child's birth; the long-term penalty shows the effect over years 5 to 10 after a birth.
Following the approach of Kleven (2023), the penalty on employment is estimated in three steps:
1) The effect of having a child on the probability of working over time is estimated separately for women and for men, using the synthetic event study approach developed by Kleven (2023). Appendix Figure A4 shows all event study estimates used to calculate child penalties
2) The estimated effects are divided by the probability of working in the absence of children. This gives the proportional (percentage) change in employment as result of having a child.
3) The penalty is calculated as the difference in this change between men and women, averaged over the years following a child's birth.
A larger positive penalty means that women's employment falls by more relative to men's after having child.
Source: PWBM estimates from CPS data. Data obtained via IPUMS.
During the 1980s and 1990s, both the short- and long-term child penalty fell faster for women without a college degree than for those with. By around 2000, the short-term penalty was close to 23 percent for both groups. The long-term penalty was similar for college-educated women, but almost 4 percentage points lower for women without a degree. Over the following two decades, however, trends in the child penalty diverged. For college-educated women, the decline in both short- and long-term penalties accelerated, while penalties for women without a degree remained essentially flat. As the education gap in the long-term penalty closed, an opposite gap opened up in the short-term penalty. For the most recent period, the short-term penalty is 16 percent for college-educated women, compared with 24 percent for non-college women.
Appendix: Additional Figures
Figure A1. Employment Rate of Prime Age Men
Notes: The figure shows the share of men ages 25 to 54 that is employed. The values are seasonally adjusted monthly estimates.
The vertical axis range is extended downward to facilitate comparison with Figure 1.
Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics
Figure A2. Prime Age Men by Educational Attainment and Fatherhood
Date,Change in employment rate,Without rise in college degree attainment 2003-01-01,-0.065729809,-0.062836082 2003-02-01,-0.160989215,-0.15782279 2003-03-01,-0.23988636,-0.238816157 2003-04-01,-0.298367431,-0.296548317 2003-05-01,-0.37988385,-0.376159637 2003-06-01,-0.443135515,-0.439191618 2003-07-01,-0.50160502,-0.4963788 2003-08-01,-0.60064769,-0.595483457 2003-09-01,-0.680919316,-0.676736696 2003-10-01,-0.741001068,-0.740189978 2003-11-01,-0.743805373,-0.748428975 2003-12-01,-0.726177328,-0.73380472 2004-01-01,-0.660588266,-0.672925959 2004-02-01,-0.647535614,-0.659523043 2004-03-01,-0.662796953,-0.675395141 2004-04-01,-0.645522338,-0.657775189 2004-05-01,-0.61173496,-0.62412952 2004-06-01,-0.557739781,-0.569409288 2004-07-01,-0.50146516,-0.512087626 2004-08-01,-0.440409585,-0.448427478 2004-09-01,-0.395147756,-0.402486489 2004-10-01,-0.350839856,-0.357391296 2004-11-01,-0.298308225,-0.306302143 2004-12-01,-0.316140177,-0.324231318 2005-01-01,-0.326994201,-0.331669589 2005-02-01,-0.306290436,-0.306527623 2005-03-01,-0.252831843,-0.245363038 2005-04-01,-0.182877498,-0.17020922 2005-05-01,-0.13464773,-0.118933113 2005-06-01,-0.082488413,-0.065707189 2005-07-01,-0.044630875,-0.025934832 2005-08-01,0.048649228,0.069286891 2005-09-01,0.096667236,0.11932204 2005-10-01,0.153658699,0.179200193 2005-11-01,0.189414258,0.220514526 2005-12-01,0.241554032,0.274669905 2006-01-01,0.309534601,0.34320738 2006-02-01,0.336380402,0.371000122 2006-03-01,0.401396828,0.433093477 2006-04-01,0.428194331,0.454304959 2006-05-01,0.452301853,0.47545912 2006-06-01,0.481918441,0.501880756 2006-07-01,0.499132304,0.513174089 2006-08-01,0.481297963,0.4914266 2006-09-01,0.511064022,0.518541038 2006-10-01,0.554490359,0.560358544 2006-11-01,0.614213202,0.616437003 2006-12-01,0.675842059,0.676192487 2007-01-01,0.72983742,0.725542353 2007-02-01,0.788727512,0.778088042 2007-03-01,0.800649461,0.78723801 2007-04-01,0.820380169,0.807297867 2007-05-01,0.843794471,0.828741085 2007-06-01,0.85001135,0.831656883 2007-07-01,0.857371982,0.83665128 2007-08-01,0.863504984,0.836660947 2007-09-01,0.840574501,0.810358151 2007-10-01,0.80116173,0.769726909 2007-11-01,0.796547804,0.765281506 2007-12-01,0.77311948,0.741647316 2008-01-01,0.717457923,0.686598476 2008-02-01,0.669614659,0.635713349 2008-03-01,0.602617399,0.564712312 2008-04-01,0.508401071,0.465965961 2008-05-01,0.415961082,0.373640398 2008-06-01,0.316268235,0.274055272 2008-07-01,0.221101796,0.178273807 2008-08-01,0.112744765,0.068834973 2008-09-01,-0.038493227,-0.082881796 2008-10-01,-0.183557892,-0.231483277 2008-11-01,-0.39356524,-0.444622342 2008-12-01,-0.680702082,-0.730281827 2009-01-01,-1.028038896,-1.07750438 2009-02-01,-1.420687485,-1.46425563 2009-03-01,-1.842646223,-1.880116718 2009-04-01,-2.247259392,-2.276761711 2009-05-01,-2.680756002,-2.703241633 2009-06-01,-3.101265498,-3.116695681 2009-07-01,-3.504515223,-3.515542672 2009-08-01,-3.875851428,-3.881380966 2009-09-01,-4.236299082,-4.240612316 2009-10-01,-4.602741495,-4.605175867 2009-11-01,-4.949932521,-4.950222966 2009-12-01,-5.235250296,-5.241660103 2010-01-01,-5.440615594,-5.450429228 2010-02-01,-5.586641707,-5.600129867 2010-03-01,-5.695308809,-5.708762171 2010-04-01,-5.743121846,-5.753995404 2010-05-01,-5.757773687,-5.76585058 2010-06-01,-5.78148677,-5.789501567 2010-07-01,-5.790631951,-5.797956958 2010-08-01,-5.806595707,-5.813452705 2010-09-01,-5.798883613,-5.810462064 2010-10-01,-5.769496303,-5.783445443 2010-11-01,-5.775266335,-5.790656265 2010-12-01,-5.733794306,-5.746029929 2011-01-01,-5.673142,-5.689043288 2011-02-01,-5.594104551,-5.615155491 2011-03-01,-5.532767282,-5.564872902 2011-04-01,-5.546582208,-5.591120716 2011-05-01,-5.51511781,-5.569995431 2011-06-01,-5.51392188,-5.577393179 2011-07-01,-5.523567648,-5.592865488 2011-08-01,-5.510657764,-5.587144519 2011-09-01,-5.491654216,-5.568925983 2011-10-01,-5.482268356,-5.566971971 2011-11-01,-5.368357291,-5.462023204 2011-12-01,-5.250826095,-5.353708477 2012-01-01,-5.138673268,-5.247800539 2012-02-01,-5.043117504,-5.159152487 2012-03-01,-4.945360427,-5.068050757 2012-04-01,-4.828733489,-4.956180905 2012-05-01,-4.741989674,-4.876297127 2012-06-01,-4.609114833,-4.747057846 2012-07-01,-4.4851079,-4.625808464 2012-08-01,-4.402577917,-4.550815949 2012-09-01,-4.279187743,-4.435185522 2012-10-01,-4.165601226,-4.326716513 2012-11-01,-4.11921096,-4.292540944 2012-12-01,-4.064452261,-4.249974128 2013-01-01,-4.052342772,-4.248817643 2013-02-01,-4.010991829,-4.219312113 2013-03-01,-3.942551942,-4.159654021 2013-04-01,-3.893332898,-4.119720187 2013-05-01,-3.846315295,-4.085013402 2013-06-01,-3.801633353,-4.053551074 2013-07-01,-3.775616328,-4.038119451 2013-08-01,-3.779985048,-4.046368029 2013-09-01,-3.79421315,-4.064817287 2013-10-01,-3.855116866,-4.131042373 2013-11-01,-3.845268557,-4.125164435 2013-12-01,-3.845255125,-4.129873457 2014-01-01,-3.812721751,-4.101812103 2014-02-01,-3.810829006,-4.102209762 2014-03-01,-3.781638236,-4.072969778 2014-04-01,-3.743781896,-4.034124737 2014-05-01,-3.705815854,-3.992696923 2014-06-01,-3.639330471,-3.92702406 2014-07-01,-3.550381891,-3.841611187 2014-08-01,-3.440604567,-3.735184482 2014-09-01,-3.336562027,-3.636993902 2014-10-01,-3.211328538,-3.51391144 2014-11-01,-3.151402823,-3.459788916 2014-12-01,-3.055555865,-3.37623353 2015-01-01,-2.969901987,-3.298130238 2015-02-01,-2.86215415,-3.198954409 2015-03-01,-2.747717326,-3.095471495 2015-04-01,-2.645807206,-3.001973476 2015-05-01,-2.563988462,-2.933954492 2015-06-01,-2.507320684,-2.889096685 2015-07-01,-2.477464541,-2.870233195 2015-08-01,-2.432086596,-2.836387742 2015-09-01,-2.391227028,-2.805261467 2015-10-01,-2.355100963,-2.780036542 2015-11-01,-2.296145158,-2.726372525 2015-12-01,-2.252456311,-2.684078395 2016-01-01,-2.168171642,-2.602106449 2016-02-01,-2.083987528,-2.524659359 2016-03-01,-2.027867222,-2.476280241 2016-04-01,-1.993859064,-2.454633047 2016-05-01,-1.956245125,-2.427383131 2016-06-01,-1.906262218,-2.388545704 2016-07-01,-1.861677105,-2.352624566 2016-08-01,-1.834425286,-2.330425997 2016-09-01,-1.812783175,-2.314801999 2016-10-01,-1.764639783,-2.27147216 2016-11-01,-1.713101861,-2.223919441 2016-12-01,-1.670904684,-2.187538284 2017-01-01,-1.644449714,-2.165364306 2017-02-01,-1.634591125,-2.160344997 2017-03-01,-1.639444184,-2.169093476 2017-04-01,-1.589482747,-2.122857957 2017-05-01,-1.560942741,-2.097447947 2017-06-01,-1.561880955,-2.098297725 2017-07-01,-1.537097665,-2.076681001 2017-08-01,-1.542732908,-2.090507556 2017-09-01,-1.472777957,-2.030319698 2017-10-01,-1.404611314,-1.975269678 2017-11-01,-1.327202554,-1.906165978 2017-12-01,-1.222778323,-1.808024855 2018-01-01,-1.154584943,-1.747727541 2018-02-01,-1.0411157,-1.641193675 2018-03-01,-0.938582811,-1.548083444 2018-04-01,-0.869201678,-1.487777068 2018-05-01,-0.77930519,-1.406253264 2018-06-01,-0.716975692,-1.348554263 2018-07-01,-0.654287611,-1.291048019 2018-08-01,-0.574511993,-1.215859658 2018-09-01,-0.550572247,-1.194393763 2018-10-01,-0.498691454,-1.143593417 2018-11-01,-0.424426112,-1.079250884 2018-12-01,-0.401989227,-1.064824336 2019-01-01,-0.332897557,-1.005008099 2019-02-01,-0.30134907,-0.980997917 2019-03-01,-0.253009678,-0.937165664 2019-04-01,-0.23430961,-0.924291601 2019-05-01,-0.237263958,-0.930118948 2019-06-01,-0.258387821,-0.957186587 2019-07-01,-0.27705866,-0.981169882 2019-08-01,-0.243844522,-0.949728939 2019-09-01,-0.19129625,-0.900595362 2019-10-01,-0.170628406,-0.884511539 2019-11-01,-0.151006846,-0.868065835 2019-12-01,-0.121216486,-0.840892833 2020-01-01,-0.122026335,-0.847867072 2020-02-01,-0.159116136,-0.890279603 2020-03-01,-0.266254511,-1.008350901 2020-04-01,-1.178612237,-1.932379769 2020-05-01,-1.912853931,-2.680046284 2020-06-01,-2.456406742,-3.241552938 2020-07-01,-2.970774859,-3.77508028 2020-08-01,-3.355280843,-4.18307567 2020-09-01,-3.752069487,-4.591442352 2020-10-01,-4.082224901,-4.928416346 2020-11-01,-4.457458425,-5.307268619 2020-12-01,-4.818861211,-5.680854034 2021-01-01,-5.175151131,-6.042671403 2021-02-01,-5.49486251,-6.372564422 2021-03-01,-5.738780776,-6.620070345 2021-04-01,-5.150616865,-6.025534426 2021-05-01,-4.730703695,-5.602708681 2021-06-01,-4.442791392,-5.30004381 2021-07-01,-4.112134767,-4.957166828 2021-08-01,-3.889516867,-4.720696703 2021-09-01,-3.671430098,-4.504312366 2021-10-01,-3.4801673,-4.321691783 2021-11-01,-3.25702761,-4.108068728 2021-12-01,-3.044410852,-3.893273189 2022-01-01,-2.840023699,-3.690327113 2022-02-01,-2.559939494,-3.409823218 2022-03-01,-2.298673457,-3.146624043 2022-04-01,-2.038640491,-2.891234453 2022-05-01,-1.74574129,-2.602608424 2022-06-01,-1.502028347,-2.368332771 2022-07-01,-1.313640396,-2.190358419 2022-08-01,-1.159388065,-2.04709555 2022-09-01,-1.002533129,-1.901425017 2022-10-01,-0.89928605,-1.808057849 2022-11-01,-0.81632655,-1.733143147 2022-12-01,-0.704004654,-1.633525647 2023-01-01,-0.604001612,-1.541438483 2023-02-01,-0.534816472,-1.481099339 2023-03-01,-0.459391618,-1.415509211 2023-04-01,-0.408867546,-1.377898285 2023-05-01,-0.398254338,-1.377471666 2023-06-01,-0.349640913,-1.335558311 2023-07-01,-0.316565804,-1.306601369
Notes: Panel (a) shows the share of men ages 25 to 54 in each group that is employed. The values are 12-month rolling averages of monthly estimates. The vertical axis range is extended downward to facilitate comparison with Figure 2.
Panel (b) shows the distribution of men ages 25 to 54 across the four groups. The values are averages of monthly estimates for the 12-month period ending September of each year. This period is chosen to align with the latest available month of survey microdata, September 2023.
Source: PWBM calculations from CPS data. Data obtained via IPUMS.
Figure A3. Labor Force Status of Prime Age Mothers Without A College Degree by Child’s Age: 2022-2023 vs. 2002-2003
Date,No college degree and no children under age 10,No college degree and has a child under age 10,Has a college degree and no children under age 10,Has a college degree and has a child under age 10 2003-01-01,-0.120273734,-0.038572207,0.024542234,-0.006917914 2003-02-01,-0.231699562,-0.128955788,-0.020557199,-0.1052032 2003-03-01,-0.35213885,-0.16580414,-0.072023922,-0.11684745 2003-04-01,-0.442777997,-0.176358645,-0.088747606,-0.166674449 2003-05-01,-0.544306954,-0.211770043,-0.187282944,-0.180163973 2003-06-01,-0.619892317,-0.293721673,-0.218736303,-0.206438384 2003-07-01,-0.708109401,-0.329097395,-0.220822391,-0.275241332 2003-08-01,-0.824291114,-0.328048201,-0.367850276,-0.404152561 2003-09-01,-0.902956305,-0.393639213,-0.491870408,-0.481685523 2003-10-01,-0.94978266,-0.467124353,-0.624473808,-0.477226762 2003-11-01,-0.927943448,-0.461915094,-0.716096687,-0.524887219 2003-12-01,-0.849489841,-0.477646028,-0.831857044,-0.554475954 2004-01-01,-0.733148869,-0.464720889,-0.831311901,-0.574676231 2004-02-01,-0.708491739,-0.458944145,-0.877764299,-0.508054189 2004-03-01,-0.766486407,-0.37389915,-0.942545885,-0.434606034 2004-04-01,-0.753760256,-0.293798465,-0.993428167,-0.396270673 2004-05-01,-0.745578464,-0.168254926,-0.994992401,-0.327976151 2004-06-01,-0.709556923,0.000603527,-1.040458401,-0.187018693 2004-07-01,-0.649966777,0.105634321,-1.011108782,-0.166499872 2004-08-01,-0.591994009,0.154656633,-0.920536288,-0.0917402 2004-09-01,-0.597701503,0.270107323,-0.816209953,-0.046810549 2004-10-01,-0.581159537,0.405765418,-0.741790935,-0.091958939 2004-11-01,-0.56166582,0.499710425,-0.637406212,-0.06885257 2004-12-01,-0.681449784,0.591926385,-0.526535737,-0.036700243 2005-01-01,-0.711834248,0.628553493,-0.528930334,-0.010545133 2005-02-01,-0.698954966,0.680471283,-0.47965827,-0.01011148 2005-03-01,-0.577941394,0.685849225,-0.469267615,-0.007772447 2005-04-01,-0.449030489,0.713282416,-0.455294386,0.0577283 2005-05-01,-0.352647285,0.781120993,-0.47856754,0.048654784 2005-06-01,-0.257472922,0.80785926,-0.442317516,0.040342971 2005-07-01,-0.165033809,0.793871644,-0.440491206,0.064066092 2005-08-01,-0.052152046,0.813762428,-0.276458662,0.159456815 2005-09-01,0.042624043,0.801904365,-0.226391372,0.179871039 2005-10-01,0.149002036,0.801683091,-0.189926051,0.240835313 2005-11-01,0.195236988,0.872366246,-0.138247428,0.239053608 2005-12-01,0.274462194,0.864285166,-0.056071388,0.280909873 2006-01-01,0.346455998,0.936644189,0.020975355,0.313179066 2006-02-01,0.370510585,0.964301531,0.053527542,0.334833821 2006-03-01,0.448932887,1.012220191,0.103570059,0.345970648 2006-04-01,0.47239842,1.011251125,0.151500931,0.323692081 2006-05-01,0.494251386,0.95522138,0.218773438,0.369786496 2006-06-01,0.488737702,1.010173629,0.290134974,0.381601119 2006-07-01,0.453870922,1.057143029,0.349732056,0.469250456 2006-08-01,0.442143754,0.997282386,0.334758723,0.460427573 2006-09-01,0.462487905,1.029661388,0.41692865,0.423040205 2006-10-01,0.5070203,1.078946531,0.484414867,0.417120715 2006-11-01,0.576394268,1.123046054,0.571887944,0.426568459 2006-12-01,0.666130023,1.176372452,0.615523861,0.420968154 2007-01-01,0.725477352,1.201125821,0.698217172,0.432413218 2007-02-01,0.783716317,1.21316115,0.794321257,0.471917424 2007-03-01,0.730975373,1.214558723,0.938745544,0.521541351 2007-04-01,0.712055573,1.260931165,1.041107863,0.515076843 2007-05-01,0.71617713,1.23185407,1.168466276,0.487968574 2007-06-01,0.709885782,1.207294273,1.206383054,0.498190193 2007-07-01,0.689609382,1.29843967,1.217763158,0.41003721 2007-08-01,0.631502909,1.470075013,1.228940835,0.310320633 2007-09-01,0.564513102,1.53191171,1.20330638,0.290767918 2007-10-01,0.48146722,1.52794326,1.216929488,0.261542746 2007-11-01,0.473173108,1.506600473,1.21887888,0.266213834 2007-12-01,0.435294805,1.521422278,1.194499366,0.234547366 2008-01-01,0.377743965,1.445382689,1.153312348,0.229673479 2008-02-01,0.278056265,1.467448695,1.142194685,0.237238571 2008-03-01,0.163080446,1.510532783,1.103544177,0.161075823 2008-04-01,0.014479804,1.47134546,1.055095155,0.147944556 2008-05-01,-0.120265998,1.476092711,0.938252311,0.179134858 2008-06-01,-0.251763209,1.436618048,0.861251965,0.127232099 2008-07-01,-0.355148375,1.323547294,0.802175532,0.088704203 2008-08-01,-0.461071702,1.10343913,0.751281851,0.112986709 2008-09-01,-0.66042404,0.891025077,0.724664789,0.091342179 2008-10-01,-0.850837798,0.657585333,0.687723176,0.100035439 2008-11-01,-1.143137657,0.43814323,0.579806599,0.077641304 2008-12-01,-1.496438518,0.127053422,0.405605833,-0.020323633 2009-01-01,-1.91630993,-0.269766978,0.201503367,-0.159819893 2009-02-01,-2.331236517,-0.791203767,-0.06990344,-0.337549724 2009-03-01,-2.78830762,-1.384289121,-0.352250845,-0.454909705 2009-04-01,-3.227655602,-1.9745417,-0.614495283,-0.566594909 2009-05-01,-3.712677491,-2.554635404,-0.880372908,-0.723135452 2009-06-01,-4.188138591,-3.098371761,-1.138388234,-0.889377669 2009-07-01,-4.659459055,-3.567008793,-1.412362292,-1.063872209 2009-08-01,-5.115891277,-3.933352803,-1.66043934,-1.218266009 2009-09-01,-5.557558482,-4.269915696,-1.940694722,-1.368330198 2009-10-01,-6.05381323,-4.604527147,-2.107273685,-1.502990364 2009-11-01,-6.487796067,-4.950967052,-2.285783807,-1.689360162 2009-12-01,-6.864256842,-5.304762591,-2.391258456,-1.791831743 2010-01-01,-7.140755753,-5.539713426,-2.481551042,-1.865337801 2010-02-01,-7.334056891,-5.683044416,-2.577199195,-1.937229235 2010-03-01,-7.490528986,-5.792113153,-2.624993009,-1.92988334 2010-04-01,-7.555799323,-5.845972682,-2.631497197,-1.907415539 2010-05-01,-7.588524887,-5.880974042,-2.600584466,-1.842642995 2010-06-01,-7.634875772,-5.939444503,-2.570205365,-1.79613528 2010-07-01,-7.642721149,-5.938135719,-2.623170417,-1.769426264 2010-08-01,-7.651848181,-5.962121008,-2.684840356,-1.754963006 2010-09-01,-7.625536705,-6.005063422,-2.753262861,-1.65945221 2010-10-01,-7.519323108,-6.014468092,-2.896095337,-1.650995005 2010-11-01,-7.465318015,-6.102989875,-3.007745256,-1.603711278 2010-12-01,-7.38525188,-6.071018867,-3.042102912,-1.567188079 2011-01-01,-7.301208695,-6.009637785,-3.058466841,-1.488425094 2011-02-01,-7.222297486,-5.910505266,-3.035919372,-1.344111463 2011-03-01,-7.161476924,-5.851523037,-3.02028419,-1.250587245 2011-04-01,-7.184585847,-5.880603162,-3.059552833,-1.213617519 2011-05-01,-7.123103707,-5.921102072,-3.01851301,-1.294124459 2011-06-01,-7.134113044,-5.915749401,-3.043599563,-1.274832663 2011-07-01,-7.194483108,-5.909319254,-2.998014534,-1.227703706 2011-08-01,-7.244994262,-5.839692279,-2.950075679,-1.154035446 2011-09-01,-7.247186844,-5.835369506,-2.877058098,-1.117577423 2011-10-01,-7.2945897,-5.823025713,-2.796868894,-1.038098566 2011-11-01,-7.22155216,-5.630110135,-2.689470005,-0.951260375 2011-12-01,-7.10391317,-5.44558372,-2.645873684,-0.855828107 2012-01-01,-6.977859603,-5.237197484,-2.638033263,-0.798945667 2012-02-01,-6.857525976,-5.056460643,-2.624329228,-0.838052032 2012-03-01,-6.738718568,-4.871814994,-2.594423275,-0.915498523 2012-04-01,-6.63311784,-4.677647642,-2.522147425,-0.854922928 2012-05-01,-6.610301401,-4.419309489,-2.490713219,-0.732735043 2012-06-01,-6.446540424,-4.236024358,-2.44111478,-0.671141478 2012-07-01,-6.287154051,-4.147933986,-2.350462421,-0.5760026 2012-08-01,-6.178359871,-4.079658703,-2.305840131,-0.550198609 2012-09-01,-6.044482497,-3.91792554,-2.1953588,-0.579071624 2012-10-01,-5.92712745,-3.724712621,-2.120173384,-0.577923693 2012-11-01,-5.907886267,-3.630869733,-2.050545416,-0.617140005 2012-12-01,-5.871477709,-3.570470744,-1.965221974,-0.651339638 2013-01-01,-5.887118236,-3.619480372,-1.876719453,-0.643330566 2013-02-01,-5.906254906,-3.557105931,-1.758959849,-0.634398957 2013-03-01,-5.842354751,-3.45756153,-1.715704526,-0.614314609 2013-04-01,-5.781060778,-3.347670925,-1.734997457,-0.658919606 2013-05-01,-5.705371246,-3.271495239,-1.773547725,-0.70617232 2013-06-01,-5.656266392,-3.157316463,-1.819339303,-0.718404345 2013-07-01,-5.594189028,-3.141252347,-1.885546332,-0.719607283 2013-08-01,-5.57828691,-3.244908927,-1.868353121,-0.699461779 2013-09-01,-5.56439979,-3.317089578,-1.919398928,-0.657211676 2013-10-01,-5.628334678,-3.376536558,-2.003224759,-0.705773113 2013-11-01,-5.599825555,-3.349311004,-2.081877586,-0.663861614 2013-12-01,-5.642793454,-3.219975549,-2.147539395,-0.585868805 2014-01-01,-5.652064237,-3.013274302,-2.178367393,-0.588115132 2014-02-01,-5.640756077,-2.964629427,-2.262336932,-0.565277842 2014-03-01,-5.584419672,-2.9524807,-2.286189908,-0.552645313 2014-04-01,-5.55397791,-2.902361384,-2.20117451,-0.57357775 2014-05-01,-5.537033588,-2.890113133,-2.086504301,-0.539099962 2014-06-01,-5.475297859,-2.861504521,-1.94019692,-0.571846739 2014-07-01,-5.38221063,-2.750033192,-1.848956632,-0.571881585 2014-08-01,-5.245502505,-2.526038792,-1.837802587,-0.591162017 2014-09-01,-5.152206803,-2.308671849,-1.780958761,-0.590295391 2014-10-01,-5.008889376,-2.106886678,-1.737740481,-0.535525683 2014-11-01,-4.947149703,-2.025127166,-1.737749179,-0.469881866 2014-12-01,-4.792517102,-2.039897699,-1.71670592,-0.48439631 2015-01-01,-4.644878724,-2.034779856,-1.724439188,-0.450692581 2015-02-01,-4.510399237,-1.9195509,-1.661962394,-0.448532172 2015-03-01,-4.393464929,-1.799856604,-1.550946773,-0.433107055 2015-04-01,-4.263912805,-1.708484724,-1.487896704,-0.448682455 2015-05-01,-4.161722077,-1.628316248,-1.443795417,-0.491798168 2015-06-01,-4.109721831,-1.611137981,-1.392056387,-0.461325193 2015-07-01,-4.122801832,-1.561015423,-1.316182688,-0.46579805 2015-08-01,-4.096870387,-1.511705021,-1.278079394,-0.447843829 2015-09-01,-4.073055981,-1.45226144,-1.254408479,-0.433862894 2015-10-01,-4.022379404,-1.473398274,-1.206392267,-0.488380252 2015-11-01,-3.95107692,-1.435625856,-1.118324251,-0.55752704 2015-12-01,-3.943010488,-1.326308486,-1.01558174,-0.589156034 2016-01-01,-3.844495511,-1.262771393,-0.897778089,-0.609758802 2016-02-01,-3.741279651,-1.227261412,-0.799134624,-0.628592715 2016-03-01,-3.644706435,-1.297058769,-0.721301173,-0.639828602 2016-04-01,-3.588987449,-1.289312378,-0.755204337,-0.606812673 2016-05-01,-3.514457503,-1.241695206,-0.804648188,-0.606004497 2016-06-01,-3.425447221,-1.150789376,-0.865691757,-0.610459213 2016-07-01,-3.358130418,-1.060897225,-0.910720293,-0.605176977 2016-08-01,-3.33039423,-1.006967484,-0.889698146,-0.620197275 2016-09-01,-3.309839443,-1.002110461,-0.834095248,-0.660147532 2016-10-01,-3.274517365,-0.971442329,-0.725354224,-0.633146257 2016-11-01,-3.222745794,-0.935919797,-0.639814622,-0.625097457 2016-12-01,-3.147837055,-0.919257649,-0.619887561,-0.614934104 2017-01-01,-3.13476788,-0.881694947,-0.565147178,-0.594870889 2017-02-01,-3.107072645,-0.859024476,-0.606789758,-0.559036559 2017-03-01,-3.118863442,-0.703783975,-0.717271141,-0.563162128 2017-04-01,-3.05131466,-0.592302811,-0.709105145,-0.600638352 2017-05-01,-3.02911851,-0.541742474,-0.690256221,-0.583449563 2017-06-01,-3.07432672,-0.448115509,-0.694853372,-0.544354016 2017-07-01,-3.043023345,-0.471054919,-0.644536031,-0.519332102 2017-08-01,-3.032660125,-0.544766219,-0.630500302,-0.557495972 2017-09-01,-2.937847879,-0.494838406,-0.60723345,-0.49279885 2017-10-01,-2.852098378,-0.423324575,-0.585789071,-0.490997863 2017-11-01,-2.70606453,-0.376059086,-0.604204645,-0.476218296 2017-12-01,-2.521824651,-0.302439671,-0.60831656,-0.442609023 2018-01-01,-2.394541094,-0.242155898,-0.633712481,-0.485072876 2018-02-01,-2.259162323,-0.094765273,-0.58874652,-0.451696081 2018-03-01,-2.122238357,-0.047201038,-0.526744987,-0.444235551 2018-04-01,-2.048559419,0.014284456,-0.50347124,-0.386002958 2018-05-01,-1.961529608,0.109875028,-0.457704299,-0.30207375 2018-06-01,-1.874371072,0.109703134,-0.415958409,-0.242758095 2018-07-01,-1.83170384,0.228991132,-0.387312535,-0.166996576 2018-08-01,-1.788079219,0.37751522,-0.346049725,-0.018480343 2018-09-01,-1.768023748,0.420573525,-0.352178011,0.031998499 2018-10-01,-1.666536603,0.51781439,-0.425755916,0.036230869 2018-11-01,-1.596037791,0.625967311,-0.397981385,0.037369036 2018-12-01,-1.596408897,0.676755228,-0.374409481,-0.004539482 2019-01-01,-1.517022145,0.75774883,-0.352014624,0.027540482 2019-02-01,-1.501973796,0.771991266,-0.296648948,0.061506102 2019-03-01,-1.483433674,0.885270883,-0.246442122,0.081144456 2019-04-01,-1.465306696,0.965321213,-0.281055648,0.079529084 2019-05-01,-1.478996714,1.056629289,-0.34313808,0.072674812 2019-06-01,-1.519980104,1.099413501,-0.385423745,0.066685572 2019-07-01,-1.518629038,1.134180727,-0.468243378,-0.001785843 2019-08-01,-1.448166917,1.231189271,-0.510417057,-0.064827447 2019-09-01,-1.370120046,1.330925722,-0.509898161,-0.10193797 2019-10-01,-1.370144882,1.430769454,-0.529804519,-0.048939774 2019-11-01,-1.37617714,1.53347412,-0.514588335,-0.025706472 2019-12-01,-1.351474485,1.627849323,-0.515040768,-0.001600097 2020-01-01,-1.391817402,1.671574111,-0.495074882,0.009494566 2020-02-01,-1.454487013,1.570979923,-0.439702896,-0.05959988 2020-03-01,-1.595475917,1.367724357,-0.463135299,-0.122056418 2020-04-01,-2.705994604,0.175356749,-1.062654729,-0.574203891 2020-05-01,-3.6051158,-0.781089892,-1.518863023,-0.956929906 2020-06-01,-4.235011317,-1.551170793,-1.91830913,-1.260438987 2020-07-01,-4.781922118,-2.301965446,-2.413531062,-1.499974178 2020-08-01,-5.22468099,-2.84276489,-2.768759923,-1.688029101 2020-09-01,-5.682845824,-3.402055818,-3.081268183,-1.887580244 2020-10-01,-6.060283689,-3.940938042,-3.265624863,-2.105248093 2020-11-01,-6.533019156,-4.428411685,-3.493095146,-2.268383284 2020-12-01,-7.024906965,-4.936942418,-3.676186395,-2.375663589 2021-01-01,-7.494113633,-5.400380759,-3.890856356,-2.465598611 2021-02-01,-7.932075816,-5.676329815,-4.161735959,-2.556548454 2021-03-01,-8.282071751,-5.919605828,-4.27657929,-2.651225341 2021-04-01,-7.653255234,-5.174467419,-3.719180109,-2.277661575 2021-05-01,-7.235039289,-4.645127206,-3.290351941,-1.987822614 2021-06-01,-6.949013526,-4.251181539,-2.979520825,-1.766533402 2021-07-01,-6.678181425,-3.831066853,-2.481765702,-1.565333498 2021-08-01,-6.455681671,-3.563870542,-2.202661068,-1.363736464 2021-09-01,-6.244689648,-3.246715833,-2.005465953,-1.164348167 2021-10-01,-6.019353291,-2.993710829,-1.884482943,-1.036189792 2021-11-01,-5.729223369,-2.774382702,-1.750824645,-0.914346164 2021-12-01,-5.483011886,-2.441617987,-1.617252978,-0.791794211 2022-01-01,-5.203040463,-2.103891562,-1.532354121,-0.827276103 2022-02-01,-4.848031884,-1.718854142,-1.351597591,-0.767450868 2022-03-01,-4.495486663,-1.373811062,-1.264619082,-0.601441427 2022-04-01,-4.145661044,-0.944607724,-1.201017622,-0.531982445 2022-05-01,-3.708204872,-0.611509462,-1.113154607,-0.454782183 2022-06-01,-3.40208664,-0.28809075,-0.974454507,-0.412685851 2022-07-01,-3.157258322,-0.094509954,-0.839809722,-0.405499238 2022-08-01,-2.992035239,0.107205446,-0.695081677,-0.406401575 2022-09-01,-2.816777164,0.324122173,-0.565469212,-0.435091868 2022-10-01,-2.737720868,0.475988238,-0.447753805,-0.407405757 2022-11-01,-2.650750582,0.575507195,-0.374797506,-0.424472637 2022-12-01,-2.458995331,0.57326986,-0.319093812,-0.46399601 2023-01-01,-2.316654448,0.545436896,-0.209858183,-0.447908713 2023-02-01,-2.190103082,0.519786152,-0.200375707,-0.442680863 2023-03-01,-2.091552122,0.571297868,-0.142899462,-0.468371058 2023-04-01,-2.05242572,0.604455956,-0.068239646,-0.502120301 2023-05-01,-2.009272032,0.567136571,-0.084257788,-0.516746396 2023-06-01,-1.93577633,0.603973891,-0.06015537,-0.476098316 2023-07-01,-1.894247812,0.738462307,-0.064652671,-0.502734484
Date,No college degree and no children under age 10,No college degree and has a child under age 10,Has a college degree and no children under age 10,Has a college degree and has a child under age 10 2003-01-01,0.018264452,-0.02984766,-0.003503729,-0.005976535 2003-02-01,0.02664941,-0.008603915,-0.001754363,0.011149648 2003-03-01,0.031940241,-0.020695215,-0.01185957,-0.008681047 2003-04-01,0.026173143,0.01710562,-0.009934942,-0.002064035 2003-05-01,0.022112751,-0.006765086,-0.01369962,0.007300244 2003-06-01,0.017285304,-0.005208161,-0.029109996,0.006065039 2003-07-01,0.003032111,-0.026901312,-0.023056224,0.026153135 2003-08-01,0.005012443,-0.031212451,-0.029247135,0.040521881 2003-09-01,0.01075048,-0.036601242,-0.037817492,0.080708586 2003-10-01,0.007220603,0.029726826,-0.008443312,0.101593206 2003-11-01,0.007357084,0.034181947,0.008070468,0.123961068 2003-12-01,0.009556816,0.039588839,-0.005839803,0.14305184 2004-01-01,0.003244151,0.027985067,0.01932114,0.182506806 2004-02-01,0.019167935,0.007068207,0.049194106,0.180965047 2004-03-01,0.017881684,0.020225279,0.072092085,0.181792072 2004-04-01,0.025309889,0.001018948,0.079858202,0.194080317 2004-05-01,0.027445294,0.013780557,0.098846347,0.177614794 2004-06-01,0.051670915,0.01280596,0.132189239,0.181126831 2004-07-01,0.080413524,0.001322073,0.153692433,0.218221163 2004-08-01,0.086144498,0.018791945,0.162177125,0.250257098 2004-09-01,0.098284355,0.006165638,0.14770238,0.24097622 2004-10-01,0.109902767,-0.009736203,0.134498043,0.27334187 2004-11-01,0.135543564,-0.000884567,0.123099139,0.303616604 2004-12-01,0.151793036,0.004687158,0.116137952,0.317939438 2005-01-01,0.173860903,0.045376077,0.124894571,0.329977986 2005-02-01,0.167423766,0.069914369,0.123717876,0.32686215 2005-03-01,0.168063852,0.076898958,0.137921771,0.370164343 2005-04-01,0.179058108,0.09516594,0.133512061,0.376347264 2005-05-01,0.18359993,0.073420138,0.129610487,0.380304536 2005-06-01,0.187772988,0.063931577,0.124102598,0.381958541 2005-07-01,0.175788745,0.072138934,0.102064041,0.378358508 2005-08-01,0.173070226,0.067418989,0.098703713,0.337871476 2005-09-01,0.164048202,0.077021854,0.134890195,0.367605703 2005-10-01,0.146862875,0.059907472,0.133746437,0.374212547 2005-11-01,0.137190847,0.033208108,0.149531996,0.385758042 2005-12-01,0.130069574,0.033166932,0.176517599,0.416930286 2006-01-01,0.127363637,0.033739227,0.171260062,0.403713802 2006-02-01,0.124727765,0.046648066,0.144408451,0.405112115 2006-03-01,0.109291069,0.054088633,0.110912305,0.382672328 2006-04-01,0.107251193,0.071254753,0.119314239,0.372955541 2006-05-01,0.126371025,0.129404834,0.102997562,0.37612034 2006-06-01,0.107558154,0.161549949,0.084574233,0.386963532 2006-07-01,0.117705982,0.149626811,0.075083779,0.373160392 2006-08-01,0.122526781,0.173939577,0.049734375,0.38117378 2006-09-01,0.122598312,0.202820989,0.016890268,0.358924664 2006-10-01,0.13629504,0.237705065,0.04177035,0.334155869 2006-11-01,0.113405321,0.278344655,0.040872213,0.307326531 2006-12-01,0.095404437,0.299141343,0.015721573,0.255591416 2007-01-01,0.088853717,0.298994661,-0.002976711,0.252406712 2007-02-01,0.062962566,0.288841651,-0.015613152,0.243312146 2007-03-01,0.078364893,0.289644129,-0.018107311,0.234331819 2007-04-01,0.086987891,0.274384903,-0.019089704,0.246946413 2007-05-01,0.081853354,0.275945284,-0.001903142,0.245393877 2007-06-01,0.089264038,0.27214954,0.005042621,0.236120675 2007-07-01,0.07720502,0.272279122,0.005878602,0.225901843 2007-08-01,0.077025372,0.243008741,0.022076945,0.247527989 2007-09-01,0.099326167,0.205542441,0.027998985,0.256941281 2007-10-01,0.105294895,0.183610923,0.034643381,0.258430716 2007-11-01,0.128470642,0.155583538,0.024904358,0.259211256 2007-12-01,0.141586175,0.108546923,0.02354792,0.295894167 2008-01-01,0.151303302,0.119205422,0.017522606,0.269427713 2008-02-01,0.190966482,0.123404842,0.040788111,0.275762999 2008-03-01,0.191711537,0.113075277,0.053367352,0.265469625 2008-04-01,0.195851782,0.119180206,0.059079667,0.247642742 2008-05-01,0.196377158,0.098225985,0.059643322,0.21918747 2008-06-01,0.210211878,0.098013301,0.062842653,0.234340404 2008-07-01,0.215014705,0.110739337,0.062835807,0.244827146 2008-08-01,0.208359322,0.116092678,0.047795964,0.232158971 2008-09-01,0.205559705,0.148240194,0.048789436,0.225131111 2008-10-01,0.201675734,0.158696162,0.012741133,0.20371137 2008-11-01,0.204706267,0.149493349,0.007033486,0.210851103 2008-12-01,0.208147875,0.192485389,0.014233086,0.199277857 2009-01-01,0.1954188,0.212034676,0.020847958,0.22101869 2009-02-01,0.187400432,0.2581099,0.019868986,0.224396718 2009-03-01,0.22668893,0.326285829,0.002230465,0.218893265 2009-04-01,0.25251019,0.36755058,-0.010138997,0.205897364 2009-05-01,0.27662945,0.409475072,-0.031284149,0.203978704 2009-06-01,0.308822908,0.440079572,-0.051989712,0.174737087 2009-07-01,0.34308804,0.497178599,-0.042922484,0.169792458 2009-08-01,0.373575548,0.504674005,-0.036450299,0.179532083 2009-09-01,0.399428806,0.518315312,-0.032078752,0.178701204 2009-10-01,0.435010214,0.549374677,-0.027005526,0.217622016 2009-11-01,0.441720165,0.608425376,-0.018381542,0.23273318 2009-12-01,0.468165355,0.674383669,-0.017424073,0.226334668 2010-01-01,0.489567934,0.682955798,-0.004032999,0.21893007 2010-02-01,0.480189779,0.682802204,-0.004789457,0.204036895 2010-03-01,0.460398243,0.670158438,0.013850809,0.211670994 2010-04-01,0.444887982,0.687940425,0.010607587,0.231581836 2010-05-01,0.447508146,0.732813635,0.035723245,0.267427711 2010-06-01,0.429350517,0.784814488,0.052459043,0.301372356 2010-07-01,0.437666645,0.826970762,0.06229857,0.331192873 2010-08-01,0.450970709,0.861305172,0.095278557,0.330546478 2010-09-01,0.436790758,0.85671975,0.09389367,0.336890045 2010-10-01,0.448786719,0.855114946,0.122961129,0.318330127 2010-11-01,0.473362414,0.834500074,0.136278924,0.308309115 2010-12-01,0.49006587,0.778782212,0.131053811,0.306400455 2011-01-01,0.521977812,0.786415474,0.114603646,0.309907105 2011-02-01,0.539589295,0.773241644,0.105791109,0.290324252 2011-03-01,0.568594292,0.792666049,0.109513675,0.278941077 2011-04-01,0.606072889,0.829694278,0.126400168,0.267490861 2011-05-01,0.622607359,0.844744795,0.12517593,0.269601002 2011-06-01,0.659009272,0.86915098,0.158649386,0.270855303 2011-07-01,0.66618708,0.892631512,0.161041789,0.271071649 2011-08-01,0.648943331,0.919207454,0.137855707,0.275480376 2011-09-01,0.655450366,0.947982271,0.147077323,0.305371749 2011-10-01,0.662466666,0.967139764,0.153719683,0.317346349 2011-11-01,0.657182161,0.963754755,0.139934106,0.287827969 2011-12-01,0.658552355,1.006034038,0.147067588,0.27255896 2012-01-01,0.613686895,0.987500206,0.166454295,0.274043765 2012-02-01,0.61357808,0.990958973,0.178416096,0.306486397 2012-03-01,0.593241799,0.964381265,0.204796139,0.316825054 2012-04-01,0.598215692,0.953551759,0.225934243,0.290257232 2012-05-01,0.598666448,0.928539564,0.23052591,0.254119764 2012-06-01,0.599769604,0.934361923,0.221989344,0.24504446 2012-07-01,0.614958618,0.885797188,0.24408596,0.197228579 2012-08-01,0.647097098,0.881297516,0.252838305,0.175067375 2012-09-01,0.64361051,0.902677176,0.245881223,0.145077274 2012-10-01,0.636888737,0.89768665,0.226833856,0.142029516 2012-11-01,0.657414958,0.936804673,0.24009957,0.164495241 2012-12-01,0.655256715,0.924847516,0.239296893,0.197559252 2013-01-01,0.706429963,0.972344512,0.241532639,0.227219038 2013-02-01,0.758418865,0.991269231,0.264307471,0.239558163 2013-03-01,0.785549627,1.022032093,0.233567057,0.264814836 2013-04-01,0.775595373,1.017623772,0.226799706,0.288961618 2013-05-01,0.788634451,1.020454293,0.225958141,0.308436852 2013-06-01,0.78755348,0.97074908,0.240902827,0.292679368 2013-07-01,0.807188445,0.954209032,0.245387911,0.297164267 2013-08-01,0.800300414,0.988793803,0.258641319,0.299779337 2013-09-01,0.809809035,0.99209243,0.26157305,0.299177618 2013-10-01,0.832217029,1.010404661,0.262106697,0.372350328 2013-11-01,0.816173994,1.032680007,0.250996435,0.394335632 2013-12-01,0.814386963,1.046713256,0.240033871,0.407669729 2014-01-01,0.818128707,1.067328297,0.251356107,0.402761846 2014-02-01,0.79441656,1.086010442,0.251922657,0.399037462 2014-03-01,0.785576866,1.068453878,0.279774013,0.40594883 2014-04-01,0.793742149,1.120322265,0.279804113,0.428325471 2014-05-01,0.790367293,1.149718303,0.280165423,0.431122291 2014-06-01,0.772697936,1.150726167,0.255894032,0.451879918 2014-07-01,0.725188747,1.190631663,0.236932534,0.490989221 2014-08-01,0.738960821,1.177611863,0.237679506,0.525251008 2014-09-01,0.768379247,1.163135193,0.259625134,0.572289108 2014-10-01,0.747093384,1.144251053,0.280650166,0.540010157 2014-11-01,0.765592934,1.119171829,0.309473711,0.544904053 2014-12-01,0.789070472,1.095228684,0.343534673,0.552863982 2015-01-01,0.782467663,1.045989947,0.333495406,0.536474936 2015-02-01,0.790040306,1.031008613,0.316631007,0.556909756 2015-03-01,0.768648165,1.031087107,0.307848568,0.570912862 2015-04-01,0.751224104,0.985358951,0.300559041,0.608041199 2015-05-01,0.751509925,0.985258671,0.313905295,0.641213478 2015-06-01,0.785580703,1.03268431,0.335083603,0.662527056 2015-07-01,0.834056411,1.063287738,0.341220085,0.653898233 2015-08-01,0.844778289,1.073241225,0.338808714,0.666598696 2015-09-01,0.839713723,1.097652403,0.351980258,0.663322843 2015-10-01,0.862719402,1.134783629,0.343029974,0.696363574 2015-11-01,0.861890435,1.138715603,0.351174929,0.724587668 2015-12-01,0.878322687,1.152320465,0.33998023,0.770455168 2016-01-01,0.881267154,1.190086392,0.34831901,0.809899094 2016-02-01,0.890393326,1.187345561,0.342438494,0.822006542 2016-03-01,0.920247577,1.195401716,0.321758785,0.820530489 2016-04-01,0.902223734,1.198562411,0.285894778,0.783391273 2016-05-01,0.871529729,1.15868022,0.246950493,0.774384642 2016-06-01,0.81938064,1.096887955,0.234823867,0.769760305 2016-07-01,0.801026733,1.041868556,0.2329539,0.773245132 2016-08-01,0.773621795,1.044730845,0.246613973,0.770437186 2016-09-01,0.75375565,1.040188881,0.23369141,0.75965864 2016-10-01,0.746255661,1.019513008,0.213347623,0.699751981 2016-11-01,0.757593605,1.003537303,0.198707616,0.691843113 2016-12-01,0.724776053,1.012777694,0.208613957,0.622323458 2017-01-01,0.711433877,1.009104672,0.210103528,0.599437601 2017-02-01,0.697428478,0.981215868,0.227287512,0.58872354 2017-03-01,0.703008571,0.965491716,0.248992987,0.58060883 2017-04-01,0.727756873,0.962111777,0.28329518,0.597100993 2017-05-01,0.738920796,0.949902076,0.29702681,0.598429067 2017-06-01,0.767576296,1.006195332,0.27995878,0.578032023 2017-07-01,0.749818368,1.016333251,0.27205895,0.567762891 2017-08-01,0.758993007,1.009250756,0.265986788,0.598454709 2017-09-01,0.759325692,1.014804533,0.242532434,0.55856001 2017-10-01,0.732107012,1.027041193,0.251352918,0.581859841 2017-11-01,0.704644646,1.082117318,0.229962641,0.540946092 2017-12-01,0.698060954,1.098138017,0.200591002,0.534541941 2018-01-01,0.687774766,1.085680155,0.197312198,0.526805129 2018-02-01,0.687759778,1.072586232,0.193173809,0.520751638 2018-03-01,0.672781053,1.061775964,0.176940297,0.528466263 2018-04-01,0.664098259,1.058331038,0.175030883,0.509875014 2018-05-01,0.686719969,1.105083678,0.171625975,0.485348861 2018-06-01,0.695667744,1.076207887,0.168648971,0.470216724 2018-07-01,0.720486302,1.05024328,0.175610184,0.451087049 2018-08-01,0.737271735,1.024269754,0.162626548,0.404887981 2018-09-01,0.733152168,0.992921434,0.169556629,0.425744538 2018-10-01,0.732111559,0.98108745,0.187019039,0.43220646 2018-11-01,0.736606391,0.976663943,0.218961881,0.445760995 2018-12-01,0.754890738,0.984577364,0.230577064,0.464597125 2019-01-01,0.758196077,0.984356872,0.224059021,0.486189887 2019-02-01,0.745239463,1.011634351,0.227903087,0.467999458 2019-03-01,0.739319492,1.017478838,0.234041538,0.470899659 2019-04-01,0.742273882,0.985742547,0.235325277,0.47393595 2019-05-01,0.736599506,0.936227853,0.243673122,0.489956511 2019-06-01,0.738944731,0.929031393,0.248208112,0.513787958 2019-07-01,0.740668651,0.946026063,0.238698149,0.540585849 2019-08-01,0.741852864,0.936516656,0.259489562,0.528668398 2019-09-01,0.772734687,0.904879318,0.279510537,0.527737298 2019-10-01,0.802025083,0.886269628,0.297412871,0.493131663 2019-11-01,0.812405096,0.831756089,0.273456509,0.481002791 2019-12-01,0.813346903,0.803641459,0.264411914,0.473547193 2020-01-01,0.773376932,0.817763906,0.2664923,0.454067607 2020-02-01,0.773251152,0.867317209,0.235445156,0.488939042 2020-03-01,0.788243855,0.897910005,0.255331238,0.488743625 2020-04-01,0.816323604,1.056148919,0.275567059,0.547006746 2020-05-01,0.81940019,1.130035913,0.304207902,0.590169001 2020-06-01,0.823796022,1.23539883,0.37126405,0.587796287 2020-07-01,0.854190821,1.32765597,0.404638858,0.609671928 2020-08-01,0.875673427,1.408620566,0.411452058,0.663691971 2020-09-01,0.900266449,1.510673356,0.413612147,0.741040221 2020-10-01,0.93976606,1.649719688,0.398798271,0.768107985 2020-11-01,0.97158461,1.774647955,0.423815048,0.809829485 2020-12-01,0.990999641,1.841383876,0.462430852,0.843606203 2021-01-01,1.052768361,1.939572743,0.501298026,0.887586546 2021-02-01,1.09676724,1.963757565,0.533814679,0.905470579 2021-03-01,1.124356743,2.015977803,0.512073669,0.953454863 2021-04-01,1.179911316,1.977615706,0.513016421,0.910471978 2021-05-01,1.259165121,2.020633119,0.491989856,0.849672692 2021-06-01,1.330511115,2.009681286,0.480525997,0.836282316 2021-07-01,1.38075474,2.005577253,0.48782735,0.829505207 2021-08-01,1.407005223,1.958079038,0.500534733,0.781052994 2021-09-01,1.395262758,1.914995924,0.499193422,0.708475398 2021-10-01,1.357516293,1.875569347,0.506853436,0.714915897 2021-11-01,1.350039546,1.864825152,0.506283764,0.694622611 2021-12-01,1.391093265,1.877059805,0.502233286,0.682034418 2022-01-01,1.432941315,1.85412202,0.494883602,0.708000967 2022-02-01,1.397276022,1.81817392,0.486507193,0.710362954 2022-03-01,1.376648593,1.819010665,0.511366347,0.682357468 2022-04-01,1.314538103,1.731558838,0.513148295,0.724142947 2022-05-01,1.245239119,1.655216565,0.514356742,0.767200033 2022-06-01,1.211885903,1.607799256,0.468607528,0.805726951 2022-07-01,1.188031506,1.580259488,0.412019327,0.846677555 2022-08-01,1.186572379,1.638692166,0.369873953,0.903930798 2022-09-01,1.217771109,1.684696809,0.380874396,0.935224653 2022-10-01,1.241973649,1.675172662,0.384911979,0.95644736 2022-11-01,1.221380343,1.659329449,0.3676825,1.008716882 2022-12-01,1.197642558,1.706334158,0.368024441,1.035753 2023-01-01,1.176519322,1.704938226,0.353975958,1.049694267 2023-02-01,1.194832654,1.693411718,0.384183971,1.102461145 2023-03-01,1.196166099,1.654200126,0.376481494,1.102349749 2023-04-01,1.189589939,1.660580755,0.337312956,1.065049464 2023-05-01,1.203285671,1.719761729,0.328091633,1.022673136 2023-06-01,1.191793754,1.7481634,0.340915023,0.953463022 2023-07-01,1.174741799,1.741212912,0.364250432,0.915859376
Notes: Panel (a) shows the share of non-college mothers ages 25 to 54 that is employed, by the age of their youngest child.
Panel (b) shows the share of non-college mothers ages 25 to 54 that did not work because of family reasons, by the age of their youngest child. An individual is defined as not working for family reasons if they are neither employed nor looking for work, are not retired or disabled, and meet one of the following conditions: 1) their main activity is taking care of family or the household; 2) they didn't look for work because they couldn't arrange childcare, or 3) they didn't look for work because of family responsibilities.
The values are 24-month averages of monthly estimates: the darker lines with squares (labeled 2022-2023) show values averaged over October 2021 to September 2023; the lighter lines with triangles (labeled 2002-2003) show values averaged over calendar years 2002 and 2003. A 24-month average is used to reduce variability from small sample sizes.
The figure does not show other possible labor force statuses, such as unemployment, retirement, disability, and school.
Source: PWBM calculations from CPS data. Data obtained via IPUMS.
Figure A4. Effect of First Child’s Birth on Parent’s Employment: Synthetic Event Study Estimates
Date,No college degree and no children under age 10,No college degree and has a child under age 10,Has a college degree and no children under age 10,Has a college degree and has a child under age 10 1995-01-01,13.00119156,30.10542968,5.433153704,22.64042814 1995-02-01,12.96365034,29.92172074,5.468184038,22.66938912 1995-03-01,12.937599,29.77661871,5.521221941,22.66499745 1995-04-01,12.88615788,29.63446821,5.515530806,22.51943904 1995-05-01,12.87613901,29.49114602,5.483082446,22.49808983 1995-06-01,12.84909078,29.37390605,5.561826986,22.4903025 1995-07-01,12.78718582,29.26599696,5.573011041,22.47674543 1995-08-01,12.74810313,29.10214305,5.598107691,22.63855977 1995-09-01,12.75378102,28.97260463,5.625453775,22.80637949 1995-10-01,12.69262458,28.8882027,5.617463282,22.92028571 1995-11-01,12.67273504,28.78106689,5.606468667,22.91353145 1995-12-01,12.59976592,28.73850119,5.629076574,22.84574998 1996-01-01,12.58490994,28.58199073,5.581102919,22.85668998 1996-02-01,12.59110046,28.60486175,5.597709498,22.85695783 1996-03-01,12.56587814,28.59798612,5.57178037,22.94793829 1996-04-01,12.53403325,28.65009312,5.579928092,23.04135049 1996-05-01,12.47665985,28.64423055,5.601266687,23.16215556 1996-06-01,12.40245157,28.5627366,5.531059357,23.23200891 1996-07-01,12.39653271,28.50551852,5.538005696,23.33352976 1996-08-01,12.37224869,28.50855196,5.508746308,23.33090432 1996-09-01,12.34942766,28.46329226,5.498059288,23.2408233 1996-10-01,12.33993702,28.37539656,5.532669816,23.22717332 1996-11-01,12.2889484,28.32232399,5.503612919,23.25566648 1996-12-01,12.25111338,28.19959625,5.440832342,23.33173877 1997-01-01,12.1480482,28.19971227,5.463002155,23.33348869 1997-02-01,12.07291489,28.10664055,5.439718152,23.33702642 1997-03-01,12.05300319,27.98502412,5.445190895,23.27156088 1997-04-01,12.05836305,27.79725453,5.480926066,23.29764067 1997-05-01,12.0599326,27.60973817,5.540548483,23.23904153 1997-06-01,12.04466122,27.47695968,5.546467383,23.19629397 1997-07-01,12.01142199,27.34716605,5.530704279,23.13713498 1997-08-01,11.95329557,27.28131468,5.513381468,23.01167841 1997-09-01,11.92559991,27.20115108,5.492726508,23.01036476 1997-10-01,11.9192593,27.11725701,5.531635393,22.90132289 1997-11-01,11.95991812,27.12072171,5.556625781,22.94902949 1997-12-01,12.00031661,27.07626112,5.523797596,23.00769169 1998-01-01,12.02966448,27.06200428,5.524263823,23.09304095 1998-02-01,12.01814063,27.0592202,5.5018631,23.04101116 1998-03-01,11.99987586,26.95916403,5.530467399,22.98425659 1998-04-01,11.95257366,26.97437866,5.542792931,22.95661613 1998-05-01,11.90666991,26.99885077,5.520218435,22.99537174 1998-06-01,11.93529372,26.9980722,5.544467496,23.13783231 1998-07-01,11.97470949,27.06649844,5.600590119,23.27527346 1998-08-01,12.00186882,27.05047463,5.616414352,23.42776899 1998-09-01,11.9896911,27.06146271,5.635562385,23.64588163 1998-10-01,11.97534562,27.10620972,5.633834572,23.83621327 1998-11-01,11.92697582,27.08226032,5.671346178,23.91840637 1998-12-01,11.8689143,27.12193274,5.732649207,23.9702526 1999-01-01,11.82258417,27.09239295,5.740072353,24.01243693 1999-02-01,11.8096282,26.97942752,5.746858816,24.14237504 1999-03-01,11.77947562,27.06450127,5.740121736,24.22467776 1999-04-01,11.74056734,27.09326585,5.749529275,24.34824669 1999-05-01,11.74847565,27.11298958,5.779299944,24.24093927 1999-06-01,11.73520818,27.20698274,5.806057813,24.08776628 1999-07-01,11.7202014,27.25475868,5.788829943,24.05509466 1999-08-01,11.75079138,27.35733463,5.822241387,23.9619644 1999-09-01,11.77310797,27.37652652,5.795870133,24.02400348 1999-10-01,11.78029637,27.40624661,5.760553343,24.03360767 1999-11-01,11.74498232,27.4052818,5.743541489,24.2152611 1999-12-01,11.72389764,27.41996541,5.769773577,24.45931861 2000-01-01,11.7119429,27.42174299,5.794634131,24.58292751 2000-02-01,11.70143663,27.51413789,5.816070614,24.74653742 2000-03-01,11.6850927,27.45932483,5.807557818,24.91441468 2000-04-01,11.71325745,27.32834805,5.826641399,24.84866939 2000-05-01,11.70610993,27.2296228,5.894084083,24.97956609 2000-06-01,11.67435509,27.18505678,5.961825053,25.12702927 2000-07-01,11.65047127,27.15923709,6.041343321,25.23997047 2000-08-01,11.6020251,27.07330448,6.08647495,25.60376636 2000-09-01,11.54114425,27.12099947,6.161850477,25.74593528 2000-10-01,11.50663405,27.12406861,6.229212337,25.97820239 2000-11-01,11.53105825,27.12132075,6.250329537,26.06220149 2000-12-01,11.52479546,27.06163038,6.234534173,26.04259127 2001-01-01,11.49786158,27.00084555,6.187686789,25.90908923 2001-02-01,11.4608078,26.93013649,6.202972517,25.7925879 2001-03-01,11.41359151,26.97233447,6.246706568,25.88377587 2001-04-01,11.3850339,27.0433785,6.273247107,26.09924466 2001-05-01,11.37268471,27.08346983,6.272364946,26.28595284 2001-06-01,11.32491953,26.9762365,6.253639927,26.53394097 2001-07-01,11.2768072,26.91259017,6.241743578,26.70006166 2001-08-01,11.26223982,26.85562383,6.253944918,26.72511022 2001-09-01,11.28038506,26.79864704,6.260805579,26.74604531 2001-10-01,11.27703104,26.83363663,6.289351701,26.72048925 2001-11-01,11.25296279,26.84689146,6.369532618,26.73741459 2001-12-01,11.22612224,26.84842687,6.464083903,26.67602735 2002-01-01,11.22392778,26.93939492,6.506974332,26.78600048 2002-02-01,11.20201825,27.0606287,6.502747216,26.82937526 2002-03-01,11.23213443,27.13037674,6.47766145,26.71362601 2002-04-01,11.20851574,27.16415294,6.47753833,26.71175465 2002-05-01,11.19890295,27.18675564,6.502163625,26.69022749 2002-06-01,11.22487273,27.23646206,6.540917375,26.62624549 2002-07-01,11.25177498,27.25469367,6.583158746,26.62671613 2002-08-01,11.27262538,27.33749334,6.581893709,26.59973984 2002-09-01,11.3061882,27.40511414,6.565644766,26.64062368 2002-10-01,11.33102767,27.43205545,6.564292257,26.74992716 2002-11-01,11.3406664,27.5388309,6.489431243,26.74535446 2002-12-01,11.35483119,27.62024719,6.447407935,26.88970867 2003-01-01,11.34566431,27.75801342,6.487105621,27.00212256 2003-02-01,11.3632955,27.82750004,6.51894646,27.0835231 2003-03-01,11.31254523,27.8849619,6.573999122,27.23382371 2003-04-01,11.31765256,27.94970189,6.585437404,27.24846265 2003-05-01,11.28580922,28.02350841,6.557117051,27.27860189 2003-06-01,11.22842124,28.08930327,6.524498968,27.24919988 2003-07-01,11.20019532,28.20866704,6.471737032,27.15103851 2003-08-01,11.19448544,28.30463558,6.473249829,26.99229254 2003-09-01,11.18091746,28.43579156,6.51689691,26.92902684 2003-10-01,11.19742567,28.60546257,6.53671544,26.83681543 2003-11-01,11.21706489,28.70058822,6.581475423,26.76678847 2003-12-01,11.24336088,28.83780494,6.600605671,26.73927179 2004-01-01,11.30532706,28.80716475,6.629462309,26.74012346 2004-02-01,11.35013939,28.79645739,6.665271815,26.82574434 2004-03-01,11.43351482,28.70527846,6.667982236,26.80872949 2004-04-01,11.42354416,28.72311605,6.630241441,26.88033566 2004-05-01,11.4032295,28.77823615,6.567845596,26.97672675 2004-06-01,11.40877542,28.83925701,6.53867849,27.08190511 2004-07-01,11.4033959,28.8193377,6.53965029,27.10975789 2004-08-01,11.38244464,28.80082995,6.531485398,27.21048146 2004-09-01,11.34595079,28.78538658,6.509814095,27.22325872 2004-10-01,11.31434586,28.72287256,6.497707323,27.08359855 2004-11-01,11.30609795,28.70640401,6.503930103,26.9451017 2004-12-01,11.3147634,28.71265524,6.482697856,26.74768401 2005-01-01,11.35151191,28.72339766,6.429643515,26.51593394 2005-02-01,11.37467175,28.7610341,6.428461101,26.33935265 2005-03-01,11.44302814,28.8957839,6.467326449,26.24169234 2005-04-01,11.51467412,28.90266382,6.508184989,26.00347166 2005-05-01,11.57612475,28.87140803,6.565262855,25.83255426 2005-06-01,11.64701089,28.83754859,6.587811398,25.7560445 2005-07-01,11.66625929,28.77962448,6.555208226,25.75298143 2005-08-01,11.65652261,28.79635995,6.574379986,25.72424375 2005-09-01,11.65237188,28.75757973,6.557018372,25.63891475 2005-10-01,11.6734743,28.72474596,6.498566411,25.67718799 2005-11-01,11.69990277,28.70205561,6.504004732,25.64860541 2005-12-01,11.70508445,28.72798738,6.522802245,25.69553068 2006-01-01,11.69468799,28.82064658,6.548225689,25.70930504 2006-02-01,11.67436884,28.88532148,6.540751222,25.63307176 2006-03-01,11.5881794,28.95083035,6.479663534,25.58371161 2006-04-01,11.54032562,29.0062291,6.49636061,25.62145595 2006-05-01,11.48979459,28.99769953,6.506158331,25.61888777 2006-06-01,11.4336034,29.00916681,6.553764531,25.58065666 2006-07-01,11.39844824,29.00587926,6.571433373,25.5549144 2006-08-01,11.41205257,28.88409381,6.595837039,25.45297781 2006-09-01,11.42423011,28.83421309,6.616869361,25.27360466 2006-10-01,11.41515399,28.80597693,6.69154092,25.07207786 2006-11-01,11.39997458,28.75168252,6.71041064,24.95540185 2006-12-01,11.34277396,28.68776562,6.741911555,24.84293083 2007-01-01,11.28425325,28.57964113,6.80877327,24.85527665 2007-02-01,11.2693717,28.48516896,6.835098744,25.00926741 2007-03-01,11.23857046,28.33956757,6.877740304,25.08034478 2007-04-01,11.24307284,28.1972395,6.89145832,25.20600895 2007-05-01,11.27250437,28.12843177,6.880791572,25.22454635 2007-06-01,11.26773085,28.15572013,6.818378611,25.16061595 2007-07-01,11.29030896,28.21654896,6.816053482,25.07476465 2007-08-01,11.25629258,28.24376803,6.771223858,25.00975499 2007-09-01,11.21532983,28.24986888,6.783306993,25.05251397 2007-10-01,11.18297998,28.26809799,6.772087007,25.10014118 2007-11-01,11.12651863,28.24131944,6.706498828,25.07768562 2007-12-01,11.09282618,28.20391289,6.682022881,25.0219167 2008-01-01,11.07801564,28.17924303,6.640075958,24.93216813 2008-02-01,11.01850413,28.18105402,6.632819627,24.73410268 2008-03-01,11.0048481,28.23786484,6.576261054,24.49845357 2008-04-01,10.95165928,28.3756992,6.475108512,24.21573446 2008-05-01,10.91134685,28.49557539,6.427095857,23.93478359 2008-06-01,10.88305959,28.47218828,6.376213621,23.69973186 2008-07-01,10.819311,28.54864309,6.353366703,23.52092428 2008-08-01,10.77843557,28.58834845,6.330741834,23.37011806 2008-09-01,10.76496086,28.64699009,6.321600785,23.20806698 2008-10-01,10.75262353,28.64060852,6.300016998,23.21368463 2008-11-01,10.74302294,28.65440883,6.291912027,23.20041768 2008-12-01,10.81694915,28.61533571,6.272019448,23.23524724 2009-01-01,10.85949583,28.59837666,6.237246408,23.28423668 2009-02-01,10.87346437,28.56404819,6.186278425,23.29132039 2009-03-01,10.86865224,28.51126186,6.175446287,23.44331351 2009-04-01,10.82186202,28.51501435,6.166343113,23.42012445 2009-05-01,10.82372055,28.5245362,6.174289959,23.42616048 2009-06-01,10.80269966,28.53946165,6.171161022,23.33516853 2009-07-01,10.79751171,28.41955442,6.184044462,23.21173367 2009-08-01,10.84650431,28.43115785,6.182199537,23.07058895 2009-09-01,10.89913865,28.37554431,6.178575453,22.92222601 2009-10-01,10.966024,28.42933682,6.204034196,22.75331808 2009-11-01,10.99585691,28.46887308,6.265781611,22.64430161 2009-12-01,10.99429186,28.55125399,6.300738141,22.50441188 2010-01-01,10.90819967,28.6513152,6.339029693,22.29310497 2010-02-01,10.91420799,28.63230874,6.394352175,22.14375514 2010-03-01,10.90086017,28.59739413,6.464967189,21.98554178 2010-04-01,10.88423712,28.46437658,6.507379721,21.96277061 2010-05-01,10.88355609,28.44270486,6.573014184,21.9707246 2010-06-01,10.90261005,28.42317331,6.623425803,22.08466279 2010-07-01,10.97300755,28.45994763,6.637242371,22.15107066 2010-08-01,10.98796719,28.39866527,6.654065295,22.35416629 2010-09-01,10.98585424,28.36431871,6.679731874,22.52542858 2010-10-01,10.96931077,28.23797035,6.715663015,22.48368203 2010-11-01,10.9341178,28.16577705,6.719027599,22.61506747 2010-12-01,10.91263568,28.13818298,6.724109655,22.58452147 2011-01-01,10.94803792,28.09068553,6.74582369,22.60302203 2011-02-01,10.99894577,28.17665557,6.753419849,22.62777109 2011-03-01,11.03699797,28.25610871,6.701372318,22.60161913 2011-04-01,11.13210532,28.27193666,6.694289178,22.59373058 2011-05-01,11.1981238,28.26504414,6.644085587,22.59595931 2011-06-01,11.24656003,28.22610381,6.600177941,22.64716605 2011-07-01,11.28727114,28.20821863,6.58420834,22.66424897 2011-08-01,11.2784841,28.19215425,6.618874941,22.56910795 2011-09-01,11.26710266,28.23031602,6.587860417,22.62096179 2011-10-01,11.21564265,28.35000366,6.562714487,22.83383167 2011-11-01,11.23084416,28.44928195,6.583329339,22.93390069 2011-12-01,11.24695399,28.49963293,6.606201152,23.11992329 2012-01-01,11.23702646,28.52551395,6.626608542,23.19979994 2012-02-01,11.20901956,28.48131835,6.656826539,23.17502124 2012-03-01,11.21949299,28.46372331,6.709509844,23.17424256 2012-04-01,11.24833329,28.49025156,6.768895614,23.18296912 2012-05-01,11.23868397,28.43498344,6.761607558,23.20419669 2012-06-01,11.26402378,28.40989064,6.799463498,23.18920695 2012-07-01,11.19828648,28.43217853,6.791474471,23.09236429 2012-08-01,11.20567261,28.54654132,6.763052928,22.97076088 2012-09-01,11.21128304,28.63480311,6.752403289,22.8186328 2012-10-01,11.29379102,28.63906928,6.747854914,22.71772814 2012-11-01,11.38846662,28.63699624,6.734184459,22.68789253 2012-12-01,11.43801332,28.56503594,6.715314805,22.63971591 2013-01-01,11.48894476,28.61287196,6.746991293,22.66668127 2013-02-01,11.52858083,28.77118074,6.740318889,22.69092736 2013-03-01,11.55589791,28.90407431,6.783014645,22.63369409 2013-04-01,11.56763145,29.1326234,6.835671434,22.56307082 2013-05-01,11.57139919,29.2514404,6.909447219,22.5361135 2013-06-01,11.54888723,29.34507281,6.956446159,22.38480588 2013-07-01,11.57324174,29.36093812,7.005035195,22.40024714 2013-08-01,11.55456963,29.39667843,6.991255262,22.48967058 2013-09-01,11.54208923,29.46927761,7.000986373,22.47899241 2013-10-01,11.53535745,29.64112059,7.000551296,22.28350898 2013-11-01,11.53223607,29.7761638,6.992689322,22.04419656 2013-12-01,11.54125699,29.92701403,7.025042118,21.83175623 2014-01-01,11.60673944,29.9568121,6.984116326,21.5618769 2014-02-01,11.60787131,29.93257857,6.96455517,21.40787977 2014-03-01,11.64040265,29.94012754,6.952866187,21.30496126 2014-04-01,11.65673795,29.91591696,6.92880809,21.28274739 2014-05-01,11.67477311,30.04729276,6.870714396,21.28609655 2014-06-01,11.70535206,30.20052976,6.88445815,21.40733072 2014-07-01,11.69304051,30.3945433,6.888188572,21.54136184 2014-08-01,11.71742061,30.47728441,6.910163499,21.51935977 2014-09-01,11.74996156,30.53610006,6.942924011,21.64259738 2014-10-01,11.76104673,30.50704555,6.929150454,21.74433291 2014-11-01,11.76808251,30.53811424,6.954544926,21.72776019 2014-12-01,11.81485128,30.62784594,6.954642016,21.78340389 2015-01-01,11.81422699,30.68158083,6.983247687,21.7862608 2015-02-01,11.86116863,30.71242479,6.981784777,21.83142962 2015-03-01,11.91273583,30.72680519,6.988641913,22.00148021 2015-04-01,11.96253458,30.67760456,6.985376578,22.09560735 2015-05-01,12.02264652,30.56584217,7.020029426,22.12182955 2015-06-01,12.0930736,30.52668812,7.032827922,22.0976482 2015-07-01,12.19875173,30.57624566,6.990953472,22.07642264 2015-08-01,12.29281179,30.62742335,6.995043479,22.13451161 2015-09-01,12.34912305,30.62777339,6.991722342,22.09706846 2015-10-01,12.38936187,30.57420322,6.998035653,22.13768404 2015-11-01,12.38967959,30.5443789,6.981440188,22.18022009 2015-12-01,12.43130953,30.4253732,6.942656817,22.2357662 2016-01-01,12.48452285,30.30864581,6.912015565,22.32689104 2016-02-01,12.49799598,30.23880085,6.899273322,22.36111709 2016-03-01,12.4988574,30.13173909,6.838037636,22.22578965 2016-04-01,12.49736773,30.10161763,6.782318937,22.09353756 2016-05-01,12.46222399,30.13786893,6.767300457,21.99650254 2016-06-01,12.45660264,30.15244277,6.707648182,21.93819012 2016-07-01,12.41247466,30.04979028,6.732217743,21.87869945 2016-08-01,12.38069908,29.86230191,6.773986235,21.84136221 2016-09-01,12.37667417,29.74636694,6.783679332,21.76188514 2016-10-01,12.33721225,29.70392568,6.809499677,21.76759666 2016-11-01,12.33381426,29.63126704,6.826371504,21.81374348 2016-12-01,12.29345029,29.55537555,6.870885502,21.81378715 2017-01-01,12.24822,29.57273016,6.878808081,21.88496364 2017-02-01,12.23782703,29.52053256,6.852765047,21.83607109 2017-03-01,12.2074027,29.56286085,6.816692154,21.88469821 2017-04-01,12.17126905,29.51751895,6.820359917,21.95228578 2017-05-01,12.14081899,29.46200071,6.780560786,21.92854684 2017-06-01,12.07712322,29.37865974,6.780651017,21.8581796 2017-07-01,12.08708411,29.29296502,6.719552692,21.76279565 2017-08-01,12.06523728,29.3648443,6.650216357,21.68846708 2017-09-01,12.06963969,29.38441605,6.624114477,21.65953607 2017-10-01,12.13548573,29.41909855,6.613712445,21.64720858 2017-11-01,12.15111365,29.35998655,6.609283818,21.56990761 2017-12-01,12.11580928,29.35249517,6.600629716,21.60922934 2018-01-01,12.12670566,29.35411974,6.589937318,21.59995888 2018-02-01,12.11427108,29.4258429,6.563566522,21.63792624 2018-03-01,12.10037113,29.51842491,6.563185783,21.66154935 2018-04-01,12.06710796,29.6148541,6.5885276,21.66063426 2018-05-01,12.10320143,29.67903205,6.58772384,21.69416767 2018-06-01,12.10521477,29.59713409,6.55925041,21.76430269 2018-07-01,12.06742043,29.5620282,6.557819273,21.71012208 2018-08-01,12.1281698,29.50542462,6.528450322,21.66936462 2018-09-01,12.16533111,29.50685756,6.456958947,21.61058356 2018-10-01,12.16318436,29.40294111,6.392670412,21.48733315 2018-11-01,12.15967562,29.41024396,6.335935293,21.36734658 2018-12-01,12.15281594,29.43798436,6.281350888,21.15099161 2019-01-01,12.13262854,29.49228023,6.23819215,21.03213712 2019-02-01,12.11644624,29.54669675,6.241587134,20.91072403 2019-03-01,12.12639728,29.57753005,6.231741527,20.79941897 2019-04-01,12.19918212,29.58102984,6.202201822,20.73340804 2019-05-01,12.24694639,29.53026765,6.180188877,20.66746471 2019-06-01,12.32000804,29.53573893,6.202246444,20.57892899 2019-07-01,12.4098037,29.56943068,6.247798108,20.62458802 2019-08-01,12.38470834,29.56144677,6.317007302,20.52563707 2019-09-01,12.34561698,29.52336495,6.355934257,20.4330099 2019-10-01,12.34129711,29.48841116,6.353057816,20.22613878 2019-11-01,12.31608578,29.50885926,6.332229003,20.05409184 2019-12-01,12.25427128,29.45449717,6.283903657,19.89839794 2020-01-01,12.2043666,29.3280567,6.248497878,19.81868153 2020-02-01,12.17390689,29.23199611,6.227814414,19.77602487 2020-03-01,12.13378427,29.22948706,6.216679891,19.78237576 2020-04-01,12.26199433,29.41510757,6.216252764,19.78895108 2020-05-01,12.31097901,29.66813885,6.27914795,19.74280551 2020-06-01,12.34698727,29.86317977,6.313612889,19.6867667 2020-07-01,12.32626254,29.86896713,6.315109993,19.5836009 2020-08-01,12.3565007,30.0610193,6.295604119,19.60907733 2020-09-01,12.47627699,30.34198914,6.335433552,19.76756833 2020-10-01,12.56039437,30.69756308,6.355650233,20.0498499 2020-11-01,12.67907015,30.97692486,6.416645385,20.3057537 2020-12-01,12.77814322,31.34040134,6.518171323,20.46983597 2021-01-01,12.88230353,31.70425533,6.565469666,20.5509137 2021-02-01,13.02104349,32.01047788,6.608222221,20.6592432 2021-03-01,13.11556669,32.24217711,6.668670689,20.65290114 2021-04-01,13.02568104,32.34913738,6.694803608,20.64255243 2021-05-01,13.04139727,32.46130254,6.737855804,20.53745959 2021-06-01,13.07130827,32.60115779,6.752619789,20.388133 2021-07-01,13.12241195,32.69199569,6.746787965,20.37266436 2021-08-01,13.11517254,32.77424787,6.742359298,20.41919596 2021-09-01,13.01859073,32.76345957,6.720968153,20.42162896 2021-10-01,12.91847251,32.68934043,6.767306648,20.31627917 2021-11-01,12.819215,32.59905612,6.752631314,20.16315004 2021-12-01,12.83420239,32.45036483,6.727381837,19.98806679 2022-01-01,12.79177712,32.39396558,6.711128929,19.71624278 2022-02-01,12.73089606,32.33515914,6.705367841,19.54999493 2022-03-01,12.66511501,32.16818617,6.649728017,19.35891944 2022-04-01,12.66642174,32.01478148,6.581992416,19.12357954 2022-05-01,12.57269777,31.8126685,6.493147476,19.00851046 2022-06-01,12.44717093,31.69927892,6.417921796,19.00516465 2022-07-01,12.3806833,31.62757843,6.389235119,18.89591332 2022-08-01,12.3338072,31.39386777,6.300023279,18.7116242 2022-09-01,12.30696388,31.22511406,6.273065698,18.55233064 2022-10-01,12.35335106,31.01842159,6.258633461,18.3794092 2022-11-01,12.35095426,30.92572859,6.252030196,18.24574947 2022-12-01,12.30962732,30.92338937,6.250456095,18.14564843 2023-01-01,12.23310412,30.64692027,6.24098524,18.04289569 2023-02-01,12.15363835,30.45683989,6.174990921,17.7328302 2023-03-01,12.17743752,30.29297396,6.152366749,17.54344237 2023-04-01,12.12332222,29.97702162,6.166747638,17.34396131 2023-05-01,12.0851934,29.77523681,6.197650264,17.25447111 2023-06-01,12.06798379,29.52725209,6.187964693,17.08530749 2023-07-01,12.0392425,29.40947904,6.144282293,16.94315845
Date,No college degree and no children under age 10,No college degree and has a child under age 10,Has a college degree and no children under age 10,Has a college degree and has a child under age 10 1995-01-01,0.911993436,1.239150761,0.261547526,0.535009104 1995-02-01,0.912938207,1.262625728,0.25219152,0.534991307 1995-03-01,0.919995661,1.298232244,0.245927809,0.530027452 1995-04-01,0.930197236,1.291574289,0.253622622,0.547873228 1995-05-01,0.929428334,1.291284947,0.244573782,0.554396704 1995-06-01,0.93086971,1.289361893,0.237838203,0.574310295 1995-07-01,0.927117109,1.304401598,0.237858179,0.588401433 1995-08-01,0.911574356,1.310594085,0.252060088,0.578041769 1995-09-01,0.930425152,1.304054421,0.265899539,0.570273498 1995-10-01,0.937297125,1.297036948,0.278394782,0.56319924 1995-11-01,0.963607686,1.294372441,0.300013729,0.546415225 1995-12-01,0.972403153,1.29310352,0.295951463,0.525134697 1996-01-01,0.981584734,1.313687026,0.321942898,0.526234885 1996-02-01,0.999678398,1.31080971,0.335205741,0.532977511 1996-03-01,1.010035741,1.28981849,0.345870022,0.542804312 1996-04-01,1.015097513,1.281461974,0.348795077,0.553817735 1996-05-01,1.025050565,1.288534147,0.347261952,0.570436573 1996-06-01,1.034021217,1.320153137,0.356843783,0.561524202 1996-07-01,1.048039975,1.297239147,0.378414223,0.571876363 1996-08-01,1.04272106,1.29507805,0.389657491,0.588462043 1996-09-01,1.013549776,1.312036901,0.396551964,0.591758811 1996-10-01,1.000365568,1.305414579,0.41270912,0.596234455 1996-11-01,0.975843545,1.305565077,0.395816759,0.596589904 1996-12-01,0.969625915,1.304115139,0.395772786,0.607893857 1997-01-01,0.962825877,1.27511683,0.39565975,0.602570801 1997-02-01,0.957623536,1.271565929,0.384421112,0.604591275 1997-03-01,0.939610492,1.275718788,0.381355955,0.61512739 1997-04-01,0.934166937,1.247613996,0.376054918,0.610438905 1997-05-01,0.928431904,1.250493398,0.38859684,0.610249656 1997-06-01,0.900249351,1.194868108,0.399450386,0.605358535 1997-07-01,0.879865955,1.176646923,0.380980104,0.583958908 1997-08-01,0.877743644,1.15544913,0.387885715,0.570522221 1997-09-01,0.8854156,1.136467715,0.381018949,0.561908527 1997-10-01,0.895431002,1.123552826,0.375959235,0.570333563 1997-11-01,0.901494957,1.131099057,0.396556308,0.582156727 1997-12-01,0.913575991,1.13857741,0.405671727,0.575342607 1998-01-01,0.911808033,1.135496344,0.396419168,0.608946798 1998-02-01,0.904537517,1.119695925,0.40768676,0.591552253 1998-03-01,0.912616262,1.103012471,0.41656515,0.593720291 1998-04-01,0.911992804,1.094069064,0.431512952,0.571459813 1998-05-01,0.905447443,1.079698536,0.420967659,0.548373538 1998-06-01,0.909039189,1.085804855,0.417310066,0.548687102 1998-07-01,0.913645447,1.083644516,0.434189858,0.555503121 1998-08-01,0.922972625,1.08401811,0.415398872,0.582948651 1998-09-01,0.924326582,1.090655398,0.419863295,0.601225752 1998-10-01,0.914425787,1.100536643,0.405719025,0.629465925 1998-11-01,0.908823214,1.084726027,0.395938735,0.638388404 1998-12-01,0.901699237,1.072174239,0.399282938,0.65398064 1999-01-01,0.902768873,1.077608405,0.412036431,0.618561428 1999-02-01,0.900961002,1.08422975,0.421685827,0.612792235 1999-03-01,0.901081233,1.071239442,0.450582437,0.590197274 1999-04-01,0.894764291,1.059846547,0.449997844,0.598410074 1999-05-01,0.900281085,1.036542113,0.470956751,0.596691426 1999-06-01,0.913870246,1.030627424,0.461607842,0.59227457 1999-07-01,0.905958056,1.016922327,0.462251343,0.617743431 1999-08-01,0.896428171,1.010694205,0.468149266,0.58941945 1999-09-01,0.907455796,1.004925836,0.479784555,0.56214398 1999-10-01,0.920015202,1.020751633,0.485389354,0.526683181 1999-11-01,0.931643444,1.035369934,0.489214037,0.49639001 1999-12-01,0.920805954,1.078389222,0.497157204,0.466754183 2000-01-01,0.928189631,1.091579149,0.484288687,0.484310763 2000-02-01,0.92721878,1.064682693,0.462791835,0.482656368 2000-03-01,0.937219067,1.046230174,0.440438467,0.481802203 2000-04-01,0.948237302,1.066251635,0.424883645,0.481644121 2000-05-01,0.960590884,1.084159227,0.413997874,0.502612787 2000-06-01,0.977120783,1.091179819,0.431754303,0.496604698 2000-07-01,0.995852143,1.118116543,0.428533519,0.465165854 2000-08-01,1.017966575,1.142983537,0.435401367,0.467543558 2000-09-01,1.015255861,1.151349688,0.432203286,0.496914815 2000-10-01,1.022284203,1.122334284,0.446147865,0.478128524 2000-11-01,1.029624683,1.114881127,0.436505772,0.486619406 2000-12-01,1.042462727,1.075173421,0.437264912,0.494429455 2001-01-01,1.026500683,1.078889094,0.459528508,0.502866172 2001-02-01,1.032363306,1.107526592,0.491109693,0.504425681 2001-03-01,1.029119794,1.132299515,0.491564714,0.507342309 2001-04-01,1.036536884,1.12366828,0.509668208,0.486986412 2001-05-01,1.039300376,1.122626881,0.517122019,0.444500852 2001-06-01,1.022496508,1.158430163,0.499042624,0.446219104 2001-07-01,1.00808988,1.17207557,0.496438187,0.433886047 2001-08-01,1.002089264,1.200562137,0.508234673,0.437928151 2001-09-01,1.002582963,1.222238882,0.507928424,0.445825022 2001-10-01,1.002416749,1.243595297,0.495289378,0.460642378 2001-11-01,1.000202309,1.25267121,0.50028721,0.480378831 2001-12-01,0.999576317,1.266786807,0.493187168,0.499960344 2002-01-01,1.021585588,1.295184659,0.483883696,0.497278419 2002-02-01,1.045182739,1.314963299,0.473332963,0.529900718 2002-03-01,1.067053212,1.355252164,0.479065939,0.57097139 2002-04-01,1.071782459,1.368371169,0.483658577,0.608835833 2002-05-01,1.084282412,1.403208694,0.497274481,0.677927243 2002-06-01,1.097629635,1.395548921,0.52914066,0.721988288 2002-07-01,1.125466175,1.431176599,0.537786529,0.750818479 2002-08-01,1.142689318,1.418025171,0.553070456,0.761465989 2002-09-01,1.158190525,1.42505686,0.574857777,0.726351127 2002-10-01,1.173851876,1.397487482,0.57354411,0.710988382 2002-11-01,1.190084916,1.410987732,0.585178094,0.689500564 2002-12-01,1.213342723,1.428429825,0.619703036,0.678431067 2003-01-01,1.231607175,1.398582165,0.616199307,0.672454533 2003-02-01,1.239992133,1.41982591,0.617948673,0.689580715 2003-03-01,1.245282963,1.40773461,0.607843466,0.66975002 2003-04-01,1.239515866,1.445535444,0.609768094,0.676367032 2003-05-01,1.235455474,1.421664738,0.606003416,0.685731312 2003-06-01,1.230628027,1.423221663,0.59059304,0.684496107 2003-07-01,1.216374834,1.401528513,0.596646812,0.704584203 2003-08-01,1.218355166,1.397217374,0.590455901,0.718952949 2003-09-01,1.224093203,1.391828582,0.581885544,0.759139653 2003-10-01,1.220563325,1.45815665,0.611259725,0.780024274 2003-11-01,1.220699807,1.462611772,0.627773504,0.802392136 2003-12-01,1.222899539,1.468018664,0.613863233,0.821482908 2004-01-01,1.216586873,1.456414892,0.639024176,0.860937874 2004-02-01,1.232510658,1.435498032,0.668897142,0.859396115 2004-03-01,1.231224407,1.448655103,0.691795122,0.86022314 2004-04-01,1.238652612,1.429448772,0.699561238,0.872511385 2004-05-01,1.240788017,1.442210382,0.718549383,0.856045862 2004-06-01,1.265013638,1.441235784,0.751892275,0.859557899 2004-07-01,1.293756247,1.429751898,0.773395469,0.896652231 2004-08-01,1.299487221,1.44722177,0.781880161,0.928688165 2004-09-01,1.311627078,1.434595463,0.767405416,0.919407287 2004-10-01,1.32324549,1.418693621,0.75420108,0.951772937 2004-11-01,1.348886287,1.427545258,0.742802175,0.982047672 2004-12-01,1.365135758,1.433116982,0.735840988,0.996370505 2005-01-01,1.387203626,1.473805902,0.744597608,1.008409053 2005-02-01,1.380766488,1.498344194,0.743420912,1.005293217 2005-03-01,1.381406575,1.505328782,0.757624807,1.048595411 2005-04-01,1.392400831,1.523595765,0.753215098,1.054778332 2005-05-01,1.396942652,1.501849963,0.749313523,1.058735604 2005-06-01,1.401115711,1.492361401,0.743805634,1.060389608 2005-07-01,1.389131468,1.500568759,0.721767077,1.056789575 2005-08-01,1.386412949,1.495848814,0.718406749,1.016302543 2005-09-01,1.377390925,1.505451679,0.754593231,1.04603677 2005-10-01,1.360205598,1.488337296,0.753449473,1.052643615 2005-11-01,1.35053357,1.461637932,0.769235032,1.06418911 2005-12-01,1.343412296,1.461596757,0.796220635,1.095361353 2006-01-01,1.34070636,1.462169051,0.790963098,1.08214487 2006-02-01,1.338070488,1.47507789,0.764111488,1.083543182 2006-03-01,1.322633792,1.482518458,0.730615341,1.061103396 2006-04-01,1.320593916,1.499684578,0.739017275,1.051386608 2006-05-01,1.339713748,1.557834659,0.722700598,1.054551408 2006-06-01,1.320900876,1.589979773,0.704277269,1.065394599 2006-07-01,1.331048705,1.578056636,0.694786816,1.051591459 2006-08-01,1.335869504,1.602369401,0.669437411,1.059604848 2006-09-01,1.335941035,1.631250814,0.636593304,1.037355732 2006-10-01,1.349637763,1.66613489,0.661473386,1.012586937 2006-11-01,1.326748044,1.70677448,0.660575249,0.985757598 2006-12-01,1.30874716,1.727571168,0.635424609,0.934022484 2007-01-01,1.30219644,1.727424486,0.616726326,0.930837779 2007-02-01,1.276305289,1.717271476,0.604089884,0.921743214 2007-03-01,1.291707616,1.718073953,0.601595725,0.912762887 2007-04-01,1.300330614,1.702814728,0.600613332,0.92537748 2007-05-01,1.295196077,1.704375109,0.617799894,0.923824945 2007-06-01,1.302606761,1.700579365,0.624745657,0.914551743 2007-07-01,1.290547743,1.700708947,0.625581638,0.90433291 2007-08-01,1.290368095,1.671438566,0.641779981,0.925959057 2007-09-01,1.31266889,1.633972265,0.647702022,0.935372349 2007-10-01,1.318637618,1.612040748,0.654346417,0.936861784 2007-11-01,1.341813365,1.584013363,0.644607394,0.937642323 2007-12-01,1.354928898,1.536976748,0.643250956,0.974325235 2008-01-01,1.364646025,1.547635247,0.637225642,0.94785878 2008-02-01,1.404309205,1.551834666,0.660491147,0.954194066 2008-03-01,1.40505426,1.541505102,0.673070388,0.943900692 2008-04-01,1.409194504,1.547610031,0.678782703,0.926073809 2008-05-01,1.409719881,1.52665581,0.679346358,0.897618537 2008-06-01,1.423554601,1.526443125,0.682545689,0.912771471 2008-07-01,1.428357428,1.539169161,0.682538844,0.923258214 2008-08-01,1.421702044,1.544522503,0.667499,0.910590039 2008-09-01,1.418902427,1.576670018,0.668492472,0.903562178 2008-10-01,1.415018457,1.587125986,0.63244417,0.882142438 2008-11-01,1.41804899,1.577923174,0.626736522,0.889282171 2008-12-01,1.421490598,1.620915214,0.633936122,0.877708925 2009-01-01,1.408761523,1.6404645,0.640550994,0.899449757 2009-02-01,1.400743155,1.686539725,0.639572022,0.902827786 2009-03-01,1.440031653,1.754715653,0.621933501,0.897324333 2009-04-01,1.465852913,1.795980404,0.609564039,0.884328432 2009-05-01,1.489972173,1.837904897,0.588418887,0.882409771 2009-06-01,1.522165631,1.868509396,0.567713325,0.853168154 2009-07-01,1.556430763,1.925608424,0.576780552,0.848223526 2009-08-01,1.586918271,1.933103829,0.583252737,0.85796315 2009-09-01,1.612771529,1.946745137,0.587624284,0.857132271 2009-10-01,1.648352937,1.977804502,0.59269751,0.896053083 2009-11-01,1.655062888,2.036855201,0.601321494,0.911164247 2009-12-01,1.681508078,2.102813494,0.602278963,0.904765735 2010-01-01,1.702910657,2.111385623,0.615670037,0.897361138 2010-02-01,1.693532502,2.111232029,0.61491358,0.882467963 2010-03-01,1.673740966,2.098588263,0.633553846,0.890102062 2010-04-01,1.658230705,2.11637025,0.630310623,0.910012903 2010-05-01,1.660850869,2.16124346,0.655426281,0.945858779 2010-06-01,1.64269324,2.213244313,0.67216208,0.979803424 2010-07-01,1.651009368,2.255400587,0.682001606,1.009623941 2010-08-01,1.664313432,2.289734996,0.714981593,1.008977546 2010-09-01,1.65013348,2.285149575,0.713596706,1.015321112 2010-10-01,1.662129442,2.283544771,0.742664165,0.996761195 2010-11-01,1.686705137,2.262929899,0.75598196,0.986740183 2010-12-01,1.703408593,2.207212037,0.750756847,0.984831523 2011-01-01,1.735320534,2.214845298,0.734306682,0.988338173 2011-02-01,1.752932018,2.201671469,0.725494145,0.96875532 2011-03-01,1.781937015,2.221095874,0.729216711,0.957372145 2011-04-01,1.819415612,2.258124103,0.746103204,0.945921928 2011-05-01,1.835950082,2.27317462,0.744878966,0.94803207 2011-06-01,1.872351995,2.297580804,0.778352422,0.949286371 2011-07-01,1.879529802,2.321061337,0.780744825,0.949502716 2011-08-01,1.862286054,2.347637279,0.757558743,0.953911444 2011-09-01,1.868793089,2.376412096,0.766780359,0.983802816 2011-10-01,1.875809389,2.395569589,0.773422719,0.995777417 2011-11-01,1.870524884,2.39218458,0.759637142,0.966259036 2011-12-01,1.871895078,2.434463863,0.766770624,0.950990027 2012-01-01,1.827029618,2.415930031,0.786157331,0.952474833 2012-02-01,1.826920803,2.419388797,0.798119132,0.984917465 2012-03-01,1.806584522,2.39281109,0.824499175,0.995256122 2012-04-01,1.811558414,2.381981584,0.845637279,0.9686883 2012-05-01,1.81200917,2.356969389,0.850228946,0.932550831 2012-06-01,1.813112326,2.362791748,0.84169238,0.923475527 2012-07-01,1.828301341,2.314227013,0.863788996,0.875659647 2012-08-01,1.860439821,2.309727341,0.872541341,0.853498443 2012-09-01,1.856953233,2.331107001,0.865584259,0.823508341 2012-10-01,1.85023146,2.326116475,0.846536892,0.820460584 2012-11-01,1.870757681,2.365234498,0.859802606,0.842926309 2012-12-01,1.868599438,2.353277341,0.858999929,0.87599032 2013-01-01,1.919772686,2.400774336,0.861235675,0.905650106 2013-02-01,1.971761588,2.419699056,0.884010507,0.917989231 2013-03-01,1.99889235,2.450461918,0.853270093,0.943245904 2013-04-01,1.988938096,2.446053597,0.846502742,0.967392686 2013-05-01,2.001977174,2.448884118,0.845661177,0.98686792 2013-06-01,2.000896203,2.399178905,0.860605863,0.971110435 2013-07-01,2.020531168,2.382638857,0.865090947,0.975595334 2013-08-01,2.013643137,2.417223628,0.878344355,0.978210404 2013-09-01,2.023151758,2.420522255,0.881276086,0.977608686 2013-10-01,2.045559752,2.438834486,0.881809733,1.050781395 2013-11-01,2.029516717,2.461109831,0.870699471,1.072766699 2013-12-01,2.027729686,2.475143081,0.859736907,1.086100797 2014-01-01,2.03147143,2.495758122,0.871059143,1.081192914 2014-02-01,2.007759283,2.514440266,0.871625693,1.07746853 2014-03-01,1.998919589,2.496883703,0.89947705,1.084379897 2014-04-01,2.007084871,2.54875209,0.899507149,1.106756539 2014-05-01,2.003710015,2.578148128,0.899868459,1.109553359 2014-06-01,1.986040659,2.579155991,0.875597068,1.130310986 2014-07-01,1.93853147,2.619061488,0.85663557,1.169420288 2014-08-01,1.952303544,2.606041687,0.857382542,1.203682075 2014-09-01,1.98172197,2.591565017,0.87932817,1.250720175 2014-10-01,1.960436107,2.572680878,0.900353202,1.218441224 2014-11-01,1.978935657,2.547601654,0.929176747,1.22333512 2014-12-01,2.002413195,2.523658508,0.963237709,1.231295049 2015-01-01,1.995810386,2.474419771,0.953198442,1.214906004 2015-02-01,2.003383029,2.459438438,0.936334043,1.235340824 2015-03-01,1.981990888,2.459516932,0.927551604,1.249343929 2015-04-01,1.964566827,2.413788776,0.920262077,1.286472266 2015-05-01,1.964852648,2.413688496,0.933608331,1.319644545 2015-06-01,1.998923425,2.461114135,0.954786639,1.340958123 2015-07-01,2.047399134,2.491717563,0.960923121,1.3323293 8/1/2015,2.058121012,2.501671049,0.95851175,1.345029763 9/1/2015,2.053056446,2.526082228,0.971683294,1.341753911 10/1/2015,2.076062125,2.563213454,0.96273301,1.374794641 11/1/2015,2.075233158,2.567145428,0.970877965,1.403018736 12/1/2015,2.09166541,2.58075029,0.959683266,1.448886236 1/1/2016,2.094609876,2.618516217,0.968022046,1.488330161 2/1/2016,2.103736048,2.615775386,0.96214153,1.50043761 3/1/2016,2.1335903,2.623831541,0.941461821,1.498961556 4/1/2016,2.115566457,2.626992236,0.905597814,1.46182234 5/1/2016,2.084872452,2.587110045,0.866653529,1.45281571 6/1/2016,2.032723363,2.525317779,0.854526903,1.448191373 7/1/2016,2.014369456,2.470298381,0.852656936,1.4516762 8/1/2016,1.986964518,2.47316067,0.866317009,1.448868254 9/1/2016,1.967098373,2.468618705,0.853394446,1.438089707 10/1/2016,1.959598384,2.447942832,0.833050659,1.378183048 11/1/2016,1.970936327,2.431967128,0.818410652,1.37027418 12/1/2016,1.938118776,2.441207519,0.828316993,1.300754526 1/1/2017,1.9247766,2.437534497,0.829806564,1.277868669 2/1/2017,1.910771201,2.409645693,0.846990549,1.267154608 3/1/2017,1.916351293,2.393921541,0.868696023,1.259039898 4/1/2017,1.941099596,2.390541602,0.902998216,1.27553206 5/1/2017,1.952263519,2.3783319,0.916729846,1.276860135 6/1/2017,1.980919019,2.434625156,0.899661816,1.25646309 7/1/2017,1.963161091,2.444763076,0.891761986,1.246193959 8/1/2017,1.97233573,2.437680581,0.885689824,1.276885776 9/1/2017,1.972668415,2.443234358,0.86223547,1.236991078 10/1/2017,1.945449735,2.455471017,0.871055954,1.260290909 11/1/2017,1.917987369,2.510547143,0.849665677,1.21937716 12/1/2017,1.911403676,2.526567842,0.820294039,1.212973008 1/1/2018,1.901117489,2.51410998,0.817015234,1.205236197 2/1/2018,1.901102501,2.501016057,0.812876845,1.199182705 3/1/2018,1.886123776,2.490205788,0.796643333,1.206897331 4/1/2018,1.877440982,2.486760863,0.794733919,1.188306082 5/1/2018,1.900062692,2.533513503,0.791329011,1.163779929 6/1/2018,1.909010467,2.504637712,0.788352008,1.148647792 7/1/2018,1.933829025,2.478673105,0.79531322,1.129518116 8/1/2018,1.950614458,2.452699579,0.782329584,1.083319048 9/1/2018,1.94649489,2.421351258,0.789259665,1.104175606 10/1/2018,1.945454282,2.409517274,0.806722075,1.110637528 11/1/2018,1.949949114,2.405093767,0.838664917,1.124192062 12/1/2018,1.96823346,2.413007189,0.8502801,1.143028192 1/1/2019,1.9715388,2.412786697,0.843762058,1.164620954 2/1/2019,1.958582186,2.440064175,0.847606123,1.146430525 3/1/2019,1.952662215,2.445908663,0.853744574,1.149330726 4/1/2019,1.955616605,2.414172372,0.855028314,1.152367018 5/1/2019,1.949942229,2.364657677,0.863376158,1.168387578 6/1/2019,1.952287454,2.357461217,0.867911148,1.192219025 7/1/2019,1.954011374,2.374455887,0.858401185,1.219016916 8/1/2019,1.955195587,2.364946481,0.879192598,1.207099465 9/1/2019,1.98607741,2.333309143,0.899213573,1.206168365 10/1/2019,2.015367806,2.314699453,0.917115907,1.17156273 11/1/2019,2.025747819,2.260185913,0.893159545,1.159433859 12/1/2019,2.026689626,2.232071283,0.88411495,1.15197826 1/1/2020,1.986719654,2.246193731,0.886195336,1.132498675 2/1/2020,1.986593875,2.295747033,0.855148192,1.16737011 3/1/2020,2.001586578,2.32633983,0.875034274,1.167174692 4/1/2020,2.029666327,2.484578744,0.895270095,1.225437813 5/1/2020,2.032742913,2.558465737,0.923910938,1.268600069 6/1/2020,2.037138745,2.663828654,0.990967086,1.266227354 7/1/2020,2.067533543,2.756085794,1.024341894,1.288102995 8/1/2020,2.089016149,2.837050391,1.031155094,1.342123038 9/1/2020,2.113609172,2.939103181,1.033315183,1.419471288 10/1/2020,2.153108783,3.078149512,1.018501307,1.446539052 11/1/2020,2.184927333,3.20307778,1.043518084,1.488260552 12/1/2020,2.204342364,3.269813701,1.082133888,1.522037271 1/1/2021,2.266111084,3.368002568,1.121001062,1.566017614 2/1/2021,2.310109963,3.39218739,1.153517715,1.583901646 3/1/2021,2.337699466,3.444407628,1.131776705,1.63188593 4/1/2021,2.393254039,3.406045531,1.132719457,1.588903045 5/1/2021,2.472507844,3.449062943,1.111692892,1.528103759 6/1/2021,2.543853838,3.438111111,1.100229033,1.514713383 7/1/2021,2.594097462,3.434007078,1.107530386,1.507936274 8/1/2021,2.620347946,3.386508863,1.120237769,1.459484061 9/1/2021,2.608605481,3.343425749,1.118896458,1.386906466 10/1/2021,2.570859016,3.303999172,1.126556473,1.393346965 11/1/2021,2.563382269,3.293254977,1.1259868,1.373053678 12/1/2021,2.604435988,3.30548963,1.121936322,1.360465485 1/1/2022,2.646284038,3.282551845,1.114586639,1.386432035 2/1/2022,2.610618745,3.246603745,1.106210229,1.388794021 3/1/2022,2.589991316,3.247440489,1.131069383,1.360788535 4/1/2022,2.527880826,3.159988663,1.132851331,1.402574014 5/1/2022,2.458581842,3.08364639,1.134059778,1.4456311 6/1/2022,2.425228625,3.036229081,1.088310564,1.484158019 7/1/2022,2.401374229,3.008689312,1.031722363,1.525108623 8/1/2022,2.399915102,3.067121991,0.989576989,1.582361866 9/1/2022,2.431113832,3.113126634,1.000577432,1.613655721 10/1/2022,2.455316372,3.103602487,1.004615015,1.634878427 11/1/2022,2.434723066,3.087759274,0.987385536,1.687147949 12/1/2022,2.410985281,3.134763982,0.987727477,1.714184067 1/1/2023,2.389862044,3.133368051,0.973678994,1.728125334 2/1/2023,2.408175377,3.121841543,1.003887007,1.780892212 3/1/2023,2.409508822,3.082629951,0.99618453,1.780780817 4/1/2023,2.402932661,3.08901058,0.957015992,1.743480532 5/1/2023,2.416628394,3.148191554,0.947794669,1.701104203 6/1/2023,2.405136477,3.176593225,0.96061806,1.631894089 7/1/2023,2.388084522,3.169642737,0.983953468,1.594290444
Notes: The figure shows the estimated effect of a first child’s birth on the probability that an individual is employed in each time period, by sex and education. Estimates for men are not split by education because child birth is a non-event for men regardless of education.
The effect is estimated using the synthetic event study approach developed by Kleven (2023). The shaded areas are 95% confidence intervals based on robust standard errors.
These estimates are used to calculate the child penalty over time, shown in Figure 7.
Source: PWBM estimates from CPS data. Data obtained via IPUMS.
This analysis was produced by Alex Arnon, Aidan O'Connell, Jesús Villero, and Youran Wu. Mariko Paulson prepared the brief for the website.
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The employment rate or employment-population ratio equals the number of persons employed divided by the population. Throughout this brief, we focus on the prime age population (ages 25 to 54), for three reasons: 1) Prime age employment is relatively unaffected by population aging, which has a large effect on the overall employment rate. 2) Education is usually completed by age 25, so only a small portion of this population is in school full-time. 3) Prime working age years roughly correspond to the ages at which women have young children they may need to care for. ↩
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The seasonally adjusted employment rate of prime women dipped to 69.9 percent at several points in the early 1990s but did not remain below 70 percent. ↩
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In previous recessions, employment rates generally fell significantly more for men than for women. ↩
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We identify parent-child relationships using family interrelationship variables constructed by IPUMS. ↩
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Population shares in Figure 2(b) are plotted at annual frequency because monthly changes in the underlying population estimates are generally trivial except in months when revisions are introduced. The values are averages of monthly estimates for the 12-month period ending September of each year. This period is chosen to align with the latest available month of survey microdata, September 2023. ↩
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Notably, employment rates of prime age men do not exhibit exactly the same patterns. While men with a college degree also work at higher rates, the pattern over parenthood is reversed: fathers of young children are more likely to be working than similarly educated men without children. See Appendix Figure A1(a), which reproduces Figure 2(a) for men. This stark difference between mothers and fathers underscores the role of children in women’s career choices and in the remaining employment gap relative to men. ↩
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There is no clear single explanation for why women are more likely to attend college than men (as opposed to just attending at the same rates). Research has highlighted a number of factors that likely contribute: women might be better equipped with the skills necessary to succeed in college; women may have greater incentive to enroll given worse labor market opportunities for women without a college degree than men; or women may receive greater non-labor market returns to college than men. In practice, a combination of all these and other factors is likely at play. ↩
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More precisely, the 12-month rolling average of the employment rate in Figure 1 is a weighted average of the group-specific employment rates in panel (a) of Figure 2, which are 12-month rolling averages. ↩
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Because the 12-month average peak value includes 11 months in which the employment rate was lower than the one-month peak value, the 12-month average peak is lower than the one-month peak. The 12-month average peak value in July 2000 was 74.4 percent, half a percentage point less than the one-month (seasonally adjusted) peak of 74.9 percent in April. ↩
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Because a change in one group’s share necessarily changes another group’s change, the contributions of different groups cannot sensibly be disentangled from one another, so only the net effect is shown in Table 1. ↩
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An individual is defined as not working for family reasons if they are neither employed nor looking for work, are not retired or disabled, and meet one of the following conditions: 1) their main activity is taking care of family or the household; 2) they didn’t look for work because they couldn’t arrange childcare, or 3) they didn’t look for work because of family responsibilities. ↩
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Values for 2007 and 2017 are averages for the 12 months ending in December; the values for 2023 are averages for the 12 months ending September. ↩
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The persistence of the decline in employment is driven in part by subsequent childbirths. ↩
AgeOfYoungestChild,2002-2003,2022-2023 0,62.41437433,75.23471283 1,63.71947865,77.39308251 2,65.74658975,76.53937839 3,67.18634908,76.75128712 4,70.72490685,77.56784937 5,73.2321992,81.13992037 6,75.04654659,80.09188546 7,75.16821174,81.77011837 8,76.71478304,81.41416374 9,80.20752479,81.48435531 10,82.13435706,83.07997719 11,80.3809834,83.81872783 12,81.98350536,83.06580771 13,82.84288039,85.02805028 14,82.49865007,83.93181744 15,85.87016095,84.41008302 16,85.80748912,86.39726588 17,84.25795928,85.18562165
AgeOfYoungestChild,2002-2003,2022-2023 0,47.77392807,48.57676945 1,53.67776198,54.27559586 2,57.37069662,58.13290904 3,59.70301121,59.03294883 4,62.20377497,61.91817169 5,64.50529007,63.77526491 6,65.77727636,67.20871416 7,69.33866794,66.73318454 8,70.2987109,67.76742361 9,70.37615045,68.11551881 10,72.34793404,68.27578879 11,72.61963389,69.26426849 12,74.26595552,70.32506829 13,75.17604057,71.13574115 14,75.08646906,71.82838132 15,75.08425627,72.6175478 16,76.81625011,72.20208444 17,76.54465587,73.25816341
AgeOfYoungestChild,2002-2003,2022-2023 0,34.44887009,21.61797536 1,32.74422721,19.83330733 2,30.66388443,19.55591361 3,28.36174973,19.41705128 4,25.5727332,19.70190477 5,22.65524368,15.21153115 6,21.54055934,15.6534817 7,20.86021802,14.82579702 8,18.48487632,15.23169249 9,15.52763712,13.57008969 10,13.22746735,13.07708463 11,14.56993768,12.82728326 12,12.79509606,12.51304773 13,11.68170021,10.59209688 14,11.67176556,11.82190225 15,9.471178199,10.85701024 16,9.083677409,8.106020397 17,9.768537372,9.432363283
AgeOfYoungestChild,2002-2003,2022-2023 0,43.92744282,44.67821971 1,37.81277666,37.72421164 2,33.85028716,33.98925243 3,30.52523929,33.22408857 4,27.64596603,29.69803177 5,24.80401072,27.36288301 6,22.43918843,24.37172098 7,19.58767985,23.58319702 8,19.14100533,23.78637979 9,18.7322905,22.50449002 10,16.62497811,21.15140131 11,16.40233282,20.35797696 12,14.91810285,19.60669619 13,13.92682971,18.45867435 14,13.28865124,17.40394541 15,13.081343,16.24478329 16,11.06852001,14.89921001 17,11.27999174,15.12035118
TimePeriod YearsFromBirth Estimate Upper Lower 1983-1987 -5 -0.6921673 0.2461811 -1.6305157 1983-1987 -4 0.2864167 1.0603938 -0.4875605 1983-1987 -3 0.1830557 0.8125003 -0.446389 1983-1987 -2 0 0 0 1983-1987 -1 0.2020363 0.7639723 -0.3598997 1983-1987 0 -29.1545007 -27.836973 -30.4720284 1983-1987 1 -26.0322762 -24.7372399 -27.3273125 1983-1987 2 -29.0288755 -27.689369 -30.3683819 1983-1987 3 -29.3519149 -27.9804377 -30.7233921 1983-1987 4 -30.3558556 -28.9299892 -31.7817221 1983-1987 5 -30.4096724 -28.9308166 -31.8885281 1983-1987 6 -29.3962777 -27.8565009 -30.9360545 1983-1987 7 -28.7765176 -27.2053436 -30.3476915 1983-1987 8 -28.8179232 -27.1955369 -30.4403096 1983-1987 9 -26.4335529 -24.7547409 -28.112365 1983-1987 10 -25.3133833 -23.5788469 -27.0479197 1998-2002 -5 -0.4637126 0.2254824 -1.1529076 1998-2002 -4 -0.0376116 0.5989861 -0.6742092 1998-2002 -3 0.492044 1.051875 -0.067787 1998-2002 -2 0 0 0 1998-2002 -1 -1.2192889 -0.6455221 -1.7930556 1998-2002 0 -22.2807775 -21.0638892 -23.4976658 1998-2002 1 -21.0707492 -19.884876 -22.2566223 1998-2002 2 -23.4786542 -22.2482127 -24.7090956 1998-2002 3 -23.8127521 -22.5674817 -25.0580226 1998-2002 4 -25.3679417 -24.0925742 -26.6433092 1998-2002 5 -23.9275952 -22.644492 -25.2106984 1998-2002 6 -22.8387383 -21.5265848 -24.1508917 1998-2002 7 -24.2416699 -22.898695 -25.5846448 1998-2002 8 -22.1771954 -20.8427435 -23.5116473 1998-2002 9 -19.7315029 -18.3962471 -21.0667588 1998-2002 10 -20.3856481 -19.0376248 -21.7336715 2018-2022 -5 -0.2304809 0.6926124 -1.1535741 2018-2022 -4 -1.3582705 -0.5569284 -2.1596126 2018-2022 -3 -0.2385224 0.5235924 -1.0006372 2018-2022 -2 0 0 0 2018-2022 -1 -0.3968203 0.3332759 -1.1269165 2018-2022 0 -11.4781801 -10.1091239 -12.8472364 2018-2022 1 -11.5254254 -10.2246287 -12.826222 2018-2022 2 -16.5014724 -15.1537944 -17.8491504 2018-2022 3 -18.1787532 -16.8485844 -19.508922 2018-2022 4 -17.234928 -15.9251347 -18.5447212 2018-2022 5 -16.7994628 -15.4848842 -18.1140413 2018-2022 6 -16.6891941 -15.3630804 -18.0153077 2018-2022 7 -15.6774502 -14.3519711 -17.0029293 2018-2022 8 -18.2291812 -16.86157 -19.5967924 2018-2022 9 -15.6570095 -14.2943828 -17.0196361 2018-2022 10 -16.727088 -15.3335759 -18.1206001
TimePeriod YearsFromBirth Estimate Upper Lower 1983-1987 -5 1.5284011 2.2785053 0.7782969 1983-1987 -4 0.1459114 0.7902261 -0.4984033 1983-1987 -3 0.4087989 0.9767406 -0.1591428 1983-1987 -2 0 0 0 1983-1987 -1 0.0663807 0.6173649 -0.4846036 1983-1987 0 -32.1888795 -30.9808189 -33.3969401 1983-1987 1 -31.536977 -30.3259039 -32.7480501 1983-1987 2 -30.7982506 -29.5556112 -32.04089 1983-1987 3 -32.4311462 -31.1343099 -33.7279825 1983-1987 4 -32.7536946 -31.416082 -34.0913072 1983-1987 5 -32.865052 -31.4653158 -34.2647883 1983-1987 6 -33.8501885 -32.3722989 -35.328078 1983-1987 7 -31.7716241 -30.2461475 -33.2971006 1983-1987 8 -30.9333593 -29.3439546 -32.5227639 1983-1987 9 -29.1646576 -27.5271347 -30.8021806 1983-1987 10 -24.7086814 -23.0225842 -26.3947786 1998-2002 -5 2.3393673 3.4235607 1.2551739 1998-2002 -4 0.9214073 1.8732058 -0.0303913 1998-2002 -3 0.5659944 1.4214456 -0.2894568 1998-2002 -2 0 0 0 1998-2002 -1 0.2123318 1.0647382 -0.6400747 1998-2002 0 -24.9496961 -23.4496604 -26.4497319 1998-2002 1 -20.6494345 -19.1923034 -22.1065657 1998-2002 2 -20.3320528 -18.9042337 -21.759872 1998-2002 3 -19.532446 -18.1288208 -20.9360713 1998-2002 4 -19.4289072 -18.0104164 -20.847398 1998-2002 5 -21.6744328 -20.2371866 -23.1116791 1998-2002 6 -20.9445567 -19.5109636 -22.3781499 1998-2002 7 -18.660628 -17.2283258 -20.0929303 1998-2002 8 -16.6323926 -15.2096197 -18.0551656 1998-2002 9 -13.9519555 -12.535872 -15.368039 1998-2002 10 -13.5592703 -12.1225617 -14.9959788 2018-2022 -5 5.2712941 7.5496609 2.9929273 2018-2022 -4 1.6419923 3.5065812 -0.2225966 2018-2022 -3 0.0569744 1.7256502 -1.6117015 2018-2022 -2 0 0 0 2018-2022 -1 1.5638518 3.2022578 -0.0745542 2018-2022 0 -24.2556253 -21.6682386 -26.8430121 2018-2022 1 -21.4295965 -18.9167152 -23.9424779 2018-2022 2 -19.5477638 -17.0388921 -22.0566354 2018-2022 3 -19.7449914 -17.2511953 -22.2387874 2018-2022 4 -18.7339533 -16.2267612 -21.2411453 2018-2022 5 -18.195838 -15.6659462 -20.7257298 2018-2022 6 -18.0822881 -15.5465668 -20.6180093 2018-2022 7 -15.3198087 -12.7647807 -17.8748366 2018-2022 8 -14.4998318 -11.9301067 -17.0695569 2018-2022 9 -14.8433996 -12.2889412 -17.3978579 2018-2022 10 -13.6510458 -11.066488 -16.2356037
TimePeriod,Women without a college degree,Women with a college degree 1983-1987,32.02150478,28.43036964 1988-1992,28.65825079,27.14321367 1993-1997,24.98345796,21.92302496 1998-2002,22.72449215,23.89462581 2003-2007,25.33683969,24.21487549 2008-2012,22.83336881,20.75290968 2013-2017,24.78538489,19.44198826 2018-2022,24.11354703,16.20327145
TimePeriod,Women without a college degree,Women with a college degree 1983-1987,30.38616126,27.59442517 1988-1992,25.08532095,27.21116786 1993-1997,22.13682976,25.58234068 1998-2002,19.23903883,22.83202385 2003-2007,19.64073763,23.04606617 2008-2012,21.36124797,21.80448842 2013-2017,19.73012574,19.94459121 2018-2022,18.85027313,17.56316077
Date,Mothers without a college degree,Mothers with a college degree 1996-01-01,0.119571787,0.151444784 1996-02-01,0.119067483,0.150894345 1996-03-01,0.119609964,0.148405898 1996-04-01,0.121017197,0.150600466 1996-05-01,0.119575061,0.149636771 1996-06-01,0.118558327,0.148989626 1996-07-01,0.117934399,0.147741304 1996-08-01,0.115679601,0.146631782 1996-09-01,0.114934829,0.14792283 1996-10-01,0.114413172,0.147610114 1996-11-01,0.114931559,0.14690173 1996-12-01,0.114318391,0.148482309 1997-01-01,0.113306365,0.150700855 1997-02-01,0.11232187,0.152508298 1997-03-01,0.111440541,0.153276609 1997-04-01,0.109432691,0.151229992 1997-05-01,0.108313535,0.151411484 1997-06-01,0.108841232,0.147953828 1997-07-01,0.109544579,0.146254821 1997-08-01,0.110368735,0.147280421 1997-09-01,0.1098646,0.14754951 1997-10-01,0.110970815,0.146361173 1997-11-01,0.112352779,0.143915636 1997-12-01,0.113531169,0.142084619 1998-01-01,0.113906505,0.140384092 1998-02-01,0.115383078,0.141888013 1998-03-01,0.115120311,0.14305835 1998-04-01,0.114552569,0.142504999 1998-05-01,0.114579565,0.142605379 1998-06-01,0.113258337,0.141766181 1998-07-01,0.111476123,0.142835081 1998-08-01,0.112374673,0.144921775 1998-09-01,0.111897188,0.147877267 1998-10-01,0.110910051,0.148567724 1998-11-01,0.108087024,0.150004035 1998-12-01,0.107587922,0.150400153 1999-01-01,0.106245476,0.150370634 1999-02-01,0.106152552,0.15033695 1999-03-01,0.106218684,0.149787915 1999-04-01,0.10608992,0.151441514 1999-05-01,0.106401974,0.150712233 1999-06-01,0.104420986,0.151815347 1999-07-01,0.104075193,0.151909377 1999-08-01,0.104569599,0.148949765 1999-09-01,0.105398735,0.147882127 1999-10-01,0.102976139,0.149038922 1999-11-01,0.101006768,0.150590226 1999-12-01,0.098991467,0.150689429 2000-01-01,0.097872803,0.152866499 2000-02-01,0.097628895,0.151703076 2000-03-01,0.096490263,0.151062739 2000-04-01,0.096089754,0.149948942 2000-05-01,0.095871942,0.149434239 2000-06-01,0.097727208,0.149143105 2000-07-01,0.099554045,0.151674223 2000-08-01,0.099556452,0.150619954 2000-09-01,0.099398373,0.149957853 2000-10-01,0.100227212,0.149960284 2000-11-01,0.101592016,0.149699246 2000-12-01,0.102707865,0.148741015 2001-01-01,0.102412056,0.150116991 2001-02-01,0.102181258,0.149434344 2001-03-01,0.100750063,0.151581237 2001-04-01,0.100269515,0.153028269 2001-05-01,0.100249582,0.153940579 2001-06-01,0.102409789,0.15397022 2001-07-01,0.101063661,0.153931578 2001-08-01,0.099185418,0.155892821 2001-09-01,0.097055349,0.155786034 2001-10-01,0.096525194,0.154493495 2001-11-01,0.098020839,0.15463589 2001-12-01,0.100089743,0.155969191 2002-01-01,0.099930883,0.154772813 2002-02-01,0.098103952,0.15459215 2002-03-01,0.09818257,0.154817486 2002-04-01,0.098212025,0.152560934 2002-05-01,0.095898497,0.15153968 2002-06-01,0.093660366,0.151655433 2002-07-01,0.09219074,0.149219808 2002-08-01,0.091195363,0.148832178 2002-09-01,0.09087716,0.147008817 2002-10-01,0.092256762,0.147653938 2002-11-01,0.090820016,0.146193233 2002-12-01,0.088248274,0.145958805 2003-01-01,0.089136009,0.142954449 2003-02-01,0.088677107,0.143067432 2003-03-01,0.089305395,0.14154539 2003-04-01,0.088906496,0.140661774 2003-05-01,0.088718492,0.141643526 2003-06-01,0.086592629,0.142196681 2003-07-01,0.087457735,0.143408853 2003-08-01,0.088710726,0.141856508 2003-09-01,0.088859419,0.140911876 2003-10-01,0.088826526,0.140672087 2003-11-01,0.087502215,0.140137038 2003-12-01,0.086010817,0.138722212 2004-01-01,0.085919066,0.138880128 2004-02-01,0.086382683,0.139662545 2004-03-01,0.086415883,0.140239935 2004-04-01,0.085714833,0.143751654 2004-05-01,0.087422613,0.144813411 2004-06-01,0.088053021,0.14457995 2004-07-01,0.088746133,0.143631918 2004-08-01,0.087686918,0.141778125 2004-09-01,0.087442982,0.140931933 2004-10-01,0.086660204,0.140547362 2004-11-01,0.088177865,0.141354124 2004-12-01,0.088919172,0.143325064 2005-01-01,0.088380441,0.144252911 2005-02-01,0.089062374,0.143997105 2005-03-01,0.089275355,0.145107299 2005-04-01,0.09136816,0.146466477 2005-05-01,0.093580288,0.145325836 2005-06-01,0.093731885,0.144705868 2005-07-01,0.093110842,0.14359908 2005-08-01,0.091072808,0.145416201 2005-09-01,0.092701448,0.148325521 2005-10-01,0.093849643,0.150260267 2005-11-01,0.095250922,0.149710397 2005-12-01,0.095904575,0.150001436 2006-01-01,0.097404484,0.151534459 2006-02-01,0.097371362,0.15066808 2006-03-01,0.098600514,0.150436898 2006-04-01,0.100206301,0.151945663 2006-05-01,0.102766556,0.154774753 2006-06-01,0.104970581,0.157126862 2006-07-01,0.105804163,0.15809942 2006-08-01,0.107413906,0.158927614 2006-09-01,0.107180504,0.15927416 2006-10-01,0.104866809,0.158795219 2006-11-01,0.102998921,0.158877451 2006-12-01,0.104296108,0.157935454 2007-01-01,0.106322941,0.159073104 2007-02-01,0.108093893,0.162434289 2007-03-01,0.11029283,0.162600258 2007-04-01,0.110716591,0.160739132 2007-05-01,0.109082213,0.160641668 2007-06-01,0.109871999,0.160870405 2007-07-01,0.111073737,0.160413178 2007-08-01,0.113967341,0.159623307 2007-09-01,0.112912634,0.159670276 2007-10-01,0.113216538,0.160189743 2007-11-01,0.113440804,0.161334224 2007-12-01,0.115358178,0.162781327 2008-01-01,0.117227964,0.161751289 2008-02-01,0.119391988,0.161501644 2008-03-01,0.119689831,0.161953661 2008-04-01,0.119510726,0.161614765 2008-05-01,0.118212722,0.160943934 2008-06-01,0.11596871,0.1597603 2008-07-01,0.116259141,0.159956581 2008-08-01,0.1158284,0.160020282 2008-09-01,0.115941683,0.160599872 2008-10-01,0.11651682,0.162655908 2008-11-01,0.116269018,0.163394608 2008-12-01,0.115008319,0.16244576 2009-01-01,0.112568193,0.159600549 2009-02-01,0.111709862,0.156332201 2009-03-01,0.111343156,0.15572348 2009-04-01,0.111913278,0.157501069 2009-05-01,0.112511557,0.159800969 2009-06-01,0.112942328,0.16072542 2009-07-01,0.112586154,0.161771736 2009-08-01,0.112258675,0.162487733 2009-09-01,0.113015691,0.164291711 2009-10-01,0.112555391,0.164316326 2009-11-01,0.112609683,0.165613015 2009-12-01,0.110960136,0.165829209 2010-01-01,0.107714056,0.167073558 2010-02-01,0.10574035,0.166979261 2010-03-01,0.105367471,0.166463376 2010-04-01,0.106534212,0.164554668 2010-05-01,0.10509645,0.162192474 2010-06-01,0.104507382,0.163099363 2010-07-01,0.104709524,0.163180443 2010-08-01,0.106798252,0.16458203 2010-09-01,0.110671422,0.165384305 2010-10-01,0.112685431,0.163971729 2010-11-01,0.115354096,0.164434691 2010-12-01,0.115861742,0.165469925 2011-01-01,0.117637801,0.168105702 2011-02-01,0.117461498,0.169556948 2011-03-01,0.116491782,0.171711008 2011-04-01,0.114213135,0.171478552 2011-05-01,0.113077818,0.169844802 2011-06-01,0.113114703,0.168194811 2011-07-01,0.113442014,0.167660905 2011-08-01,0.110856513,0.167773583 2011-09-01,0.110622023,0.164997314 2011-10-01,0.111399763,0.165036778 2011-11-01,0.108685837,0.164867658 2011-12-01,0.109484236,0.165471152 2012-01-01,0.111352684,0.165707124 2012-02-01,0.112843263,0.164948646 2012-03-01,0.112613992,0.163564352 2012-04-01,0.112560927,0.162131744 2012-05-01,0.114542279,0.159600916 2012-06-01,0.115618671,0.161001664 2012-07-01,0.114184796,0.162595237 2012-08-01,0.11133482,0.164248622 2012-09-01,0.107938458,0.166005698 2012-10-01,0.10711831,0.166193827 2012-11-01,0.106626697,0.164743462 2012-12-01,0.108566651,0.16498697 2013-01-01,0.109295828,0.164546387 2013-02-01,0.108858281,0.163941804 2013-03-01,0.10816325,0.161692709 2013-04-01,0.110544203,0.159990303 2013-05-01,0.112367363,0.158310969 2013-06-01,0.113266465,0.160316985 2013-07-01,0.112758649,0.160931973 2013-08-01,0.113731019,0.161295198 2013-09-01,0.114575127,0.161100353 2013-10-01,0.113724654,0.161327203 2013-11-01,0.117195821,0.162053747 2013-12-01,0.115811997,0.161487882 2014-01-01,0.115907592,0.159648697 2014-02-01,0.115135248,0.158310513 2014-03-01,0.117202791,0.157711221 2014-04-01,0.118040323,0.156849193 2014-05-01,0.119130502,0.158725078 2014-06-01,0.118883829,0.156370816 2014-07-01,0.121119264,0.154072184 2014-08-01,0.123463804,0.152303516 2014-09-01,0.125118872,0.149320782 2014-10-01,0.12671444,0.148876095 2014-11-01,0.126153332,0.149968773 2014-12-01,0.122999863,0.150454915 2015-01-01,0.120777437,0.150993876 2015-02-01,0.120009568,0.152942655 2015-03-01,0.121028679,0.153479099 2015-04-01,0.119705963,0.153797351 2015-05-01,0.119844762,0.155854351 2015-06-01,0.118387725,0.153548915 2015-07-01,0.119006687,0.152069666 2015-08-01,0.119795365,0.151245534 2015-09-01,0.121271476,0.153535167 2015-10-01,0.123847392,0.155409205 2015-11-01,0.122663758,0.155266948 2015-12-01,0.122270954,0.154693572 2016-01-01,0.122270071,0.154989344 2016-02-01,0.122773413,0.157984888 2016-03-01,0.121291152,0.16003767 2016-04-01,0.11817248,0.162737632 2016-05-01,0.11521776,0.163833895 2016-06-01,0.115822142,0.162405555 2016-07-01,0.114206025,0.163243352 2016-08-01,0.112493788,0.164274295 2016-09-01,0.109622916,0.165768932 2016-10-01,0.107037072,0.166701811 2016-11-01,0.10782076,0.167220962 2016-12-01,0.111818319,0.166668838 2017-01-01,0.112569338,0.166429447 2017-02-01,0.116313438,0.165829142 2017-03-01,0.116676468,0.166294115 2017-04-01,0.117072824,0.16708308 2017-05-01,0.116382873,0.167904374 2017-06-01,0.116485922,0.169636572 2017-07-01,0.114348102,0.171338206 2017-08-01,0.114874784,0.171243808 2017-09-01,0.112308697,0.170854664 2017-10-01,0.110377977,0.170502192 2017-11-01,0.111483031,0.171467869 2017-12-01,0.112512704,0.173628606 2018-01-01,0.112478568,0.176826237 2018-02-01,0.112339508,0.178242933 2018-03-01,0.11178315,0.179799426 2018-04-01,0.114237466,0.178484268 2018-05-01,0.115326835,0.179942342 2018-06-01,0.113984895,0.18207774 2018-07-01,0.112452902,0.18386591 2018-08-01,0.111749047,0.184638875 2018-09-01,0.11415758,0.184996635 2018-10-01,0.11694917,0.184927813 2018-11-01,0.116844804,0.183572729 2018-12-01,0.115870032,0.183529929 2019-01-01,0.116932574,0.183276542 2019-02-01,0.114956254,0.181225676 2019-03-01,0.114648683,0.179675082 2019-04-01,0.116135618,0.177725733 2019-05-01,0.117169447,0.176571161 2019-06-01,0.118481615,0.17427641 2019-07-01,0.122219674,0.173655173 2019-08-01,0.122714942,0.171614718 2019-09-01,0.124369201,0.170478789 2019-10-01,0.12386533,0.16979371 2019-11-01,0.123515268,0.170182634 2019-12-01,0.12609238,0.169188317 2020-01-01,0.124916324,0.164944273 2020-02-01,0.1249144,0.162675075 2020-03-01,0.125878277,0.160336621 2020-04-01,0.126477209,0.163065361 2020-05-01,0.128131293,0.162050291 2020-06-01,0.130993639,0.162797089 2020-07-01,0.136749077,0.164799503 2020-08-01,0.13865906,0.164431524 2020-09-01,0.137814295,0.163880873 2020-10-01,0.137019071,0.165921448 2020-11-01,0.136870593,0.169301558 2020-12-01,0.135235214,0.172840803 2021-01-01,0.135117139,0.173339083 2021-02-01,0.136721893,0.174969187 2021-03-01,0.139619425,0.17372616 2021-04-01,0.139147175,0.175898666 2021-05-01,0.139704151,0.176982217 2021-06-01,0.138771663,0.178255427 2021-07-01,0.137708031,0.179538801 2021-08-01,0.138576033,0.183171079 2021-09-01,0.139993112,0.184790396 2021-10-01,0.143168524,0.187010949 2021-11-01,0.14328815,0.186880235 2021-12-01,0.144003988,0.187851566 2022-01-01,0.146208723,0.190614031 2022-02-01,0.149323934,0.19283044 2022-03-01,0.150689018,0.194154351 2022-04-01,0.150238467,0.19262276 2022-05-01,0.149266583,0.193247147 2022-06-01,0.151469229,0.193083071 2022-07-01,0.149583877,0.190627401 2022-08-01,0.15078405,0.190722766 2022-09-01,0.151615399,0.190118748 2022-10-01,0.151063034,0.190202679 2022-11-01,0.152992824,0.188440917 2022-12-01,0.156324379,0.186312759 2023-01-01,0.157928388,0.18901705 2023-02-01,0.155579883,0.188981855 2023-03-01,0.153642455,0.190740948 2023-04-01,0.154087796,0.191445551 2023-05-01,0.154827516,0.19215315 2023-06-01,0.155363843,0.195530448 2023-07-01,0.153710931,0.196372075
Year,All adults 1994,41.705025 1996,46.87904 1998,42.974606 2000,46.446369 2002,47.169807 2004,43.761856 2006,40.84214 2008,35.091469 2010,36.608253 2012,35.827152 2014,31.619501 2016,28.57966 2018,29.234846 2021,24.82303 2022,26.351936
Year,Has a college degree,No college degree 1994,33.518875,38.730377 1996,37.091053,43.889511 1998,36.297855,40.258846 2000,33.313648,42.922543 2002,40.004307,42.228832 2004,29.399122,40.312321 2006,30.948,38.574207 2008,20.570658,32.710419 2010,23.361395,35.112007 2012,17.391996,33.672424 2014,19.086052,29.217758 2016,19.735989,27.628368 2018,13.99158,28.076391 2021,16.378607,22.385368 2022,15.332745,26.736208
Year,All adults 1994,34.227924 1996,39.268021 1998,34.919762 2000,40.665794 2002,40.623764 2004,37.662407 2006,35.088821 2008,35.76791 2010,35.774281 2012,31.689764 2014,31.894249 2016,26.894178 2018,24.980062 2021,22.303551 2022,24.825403
Year,Has a college degree,No college degree 1994,17.777107,39.186405 1996,22.311573,43.113693 1998,22.401939,39.865166 2000,24.466763,46.676914 2002,24.582542,43.362759 2004,14.704985,43.960918 2006,21.246809,41.951061 2008,21.968767,38.681091 2010,16.098806,37.987225 2012,15.592364,33.054356 2014,20.352398,35.857315 2016,16.722246,32.880569 2018,11.668242,29.834936 2021,11.660666,23.260794 2022,11.991673,26.259466
Date,No college degree and no children under age 10,No college degree and has a child under age 10,Has a college degree and no children under age 10,Has a college degree and has a child under age 10 1995-01-01,82.59822166,89.47887214,92.92846147,96.59910466 1995-02-01,82.69168534,89.65965307,93.0109434,96.60802054 1995-03-01,82.7411546,89.78773776,93.07217425,96.58369704 1995-04-01,82.80788364,89.82639272,93.07501551,96.57581653 1995-05-01,82.85994868,89.82692856,93.04120961,96.58733017 1995-06-01,82.92875513,89.84671664,93.09456986,96.56343726 1995-07-01,82.97616633,89.77554439,93.13809129,96.58962487 1995-08-01,83.04472099,89.72458686,93.09849575,96.58668227 1995-09-01,83.05582777,89.70329108,93.06980767,96.53066716 1995-10-01,83.05845176,89.72010993,92.97138222,96.47110266 1995-11-01,82.9585249,89.70115099,92.85786898,96.48735076 1995-12-01,82.85930389,89.65131401,92.77903033,96.48089454 1996-01-01,82.83311426,89.63557106,92.74926138,96.45686062 1996-02-01,82.79209153,89.63871568,92.7096415,96.4747148 1996-03-01,82.7800047,89.64069303,92.62764225,96.51269763 1996-04-01,82.78946405,89.69747821,92.56839795,96.49863438 1996-05-01,82.78992205,89.76546342,92.56016037,96.43259854 1996-06-01,82.83439801,89.77384349,92.52962626,96.46457601 1996-07-01,82.8841594,89.88495532,92.53309219,96.45465329 1996-08-01,82.96628551,90.01147671,92.58193065,96.4305846 1996-09-01,83.05271021,90.05918386,92.55028002,96.46165262 1996-10-01,83.14489864,90.12135889,92.54383286,96.50542657 1996-11-01,83.25286067,90.22299119,92.60936464,96.49635322 1996-12-01,83.37038869,90.30727913,92.62533396,96.50195184 1997-01-01,83.39357233,90.46399444,92.64778946,96.57195781 1997-02-01,83.43451008,90.5531664,92.67425426,96.58857024 1997-03-01,83.47052253,90.68136228,92.74353798,96.62030316 1997-04-01,83.4967285,90.78610713,92.84761225,96.69282244 1997-05-01,83.52615028,90.88022124,92.84489339,96.75524787 1997-06-01,83.54273173,90.99121918,92.86397325,96.80341133 1997-07-01,83.60001238,91.05626543,92.84413966,96.89430128 1997-08-01,83.63393241,91.13820305,92.83252155,96.94434887 1997-09-01,83.65182214,91.20428742,92.8636242,96.9820386 1997-10-01,83.65086124,91.22803851,92.88205996,97.01446662 1997-11-01,83.70925821,91.26685632,92.90660044,97.05532561 1997-12-01,83.71861864,91.32318933,92.93706232,97.04812402 1998-01-01,83.81657629,91.37243798,92.9449732,97.03662284 1998-02-01,83.87709384,91.44434347,92.9295364,97.09087324 1998-03-01,83.9312898,91.49001243,93.01645741,97.05840679 1998-04-01,83.97927987,91.62755753,93.05007602,97.03769494 1998-05-01,84.06284631,91.70994531,93.16068729,97.02191015 1998-06-01,84.10702964,91.76509403,93.22776104,96.98728648 1998-07-01,84.12736289,91.77889382,93.24967341,96.95962604 1998-08-01,84.14787694,91.748474,93.25442696,96.95885142 1998-09-01,84.16659572,91.7402581,93.27466863,96.94458348 1998-10-01,84.1877135,91.78091956,93.28830395,96.96046782 1998-11-01,84.22224462,91.80535343,93.27270628,96.91015716 1998-12-01,84.25859472,91.82613623,93.25173871,96.97088017 1999-01-01,84.32574459,91.85175192,93.29853845,96.9910479 1999-02-01,84.36678881,91.8971083,93.27340225,96.99086506 1999-03-01,84.42925959,91.93919956,93.10948747,97.02553845 1999-04-01,84.47601682,91.94176508,92.97795964,97.01949489 1999-05-01,84.45722751,91.89688513,92.87777563,97.05014241 1999-06-01,84.4474545,91.89108923,92.80519336,97.04779196 1999-07-01,84.42236118,91.94626389,92.76307743,97.03338647 1999-08-01,84.34202249,92.03035793,92.74167394,97.01903797 1999-09-01,84.30530439,92.12095315,92.67276969,97.03535169 1999-10-01,84.31906375,92.08231248,92.66550459,97.0476286 1999-11-01,84.34053518,92.07583247,92.62333517,97.17028961 1999-12-01,84.39499745,92.0621925,92.65069811,97.1746855 2000-01-01,84.40187241,92.07159453,92.64647585,97.2048165 2000-02-01,84.43485795,92.05317323,92.73335581,97.20679595 2000-03-01,84.42786778,92.04383591,92.80635988,97.24466694 2000-04-01,84.42262672,92.03874425,92.88402131,97.30991227 2000-05-01,84.39004748,92.07364439,92.89497293,97.34927255 2000-06-01,84.39549346,92.12586592,92.91598082,97.40589841 2000-07-01,84.43066663,92.09860789,92.94615379,97.41270084 2000-08-01,84.49104798,92.07219115,92.97595954,97.44001116 2000-09-01,84.49926971,92.05820398,93.03004126,97.39059957 2000-10-01,84.45372974,92.12387111,92.98897294,97.39366667 2000-11-01,84.37996237,92.16087317,93.04244716,97.36148965 2000-12-01,84.31496687,92.18410985,93.02136188,97.37629054 2001-01-01,84.24755043,92.11994482,92.99089519,97.32334422 2001-02-01,84.17896291,92.08200185,92.99561546,97.30561883 2001-03-01,84.11428208,92.0403869,92.95654823,97.24984044 2001-04-01,83.99695062,92.00712863,92.88608434,97.16727838 2001-05-01,83.95914059,91.94710264,92.86433265,97.11953368 2001-06-01,83.84428785,91.82892661,92.81722198,97.05976062 2001-07-01,83.69831531,91.75956745,92.77417434,97.06320596 2001-08-01,83.56200025,91.59970389,92.67683086,97.00985369 2001-09-01,83.46709383,91.43014184,92.59225903,96.96583854 2001-10-01,83.34339717,91.28602737,92.5349057,96.79495067 2001-11-01,83.17234818,91.11515385,92.36071638,96.66888956 2001-12-01,82.9855216,90.96628413,92.19343684,96.48917768 2002-01-01,82.75878952,90.78177364,91.96819205,96.39154726 2002-02-01,82.60105951,90.61947138,91.77672259,96.3111 2002-03-01,82.47095092,90.41328363,91.69993084,96.18928168 2002-04-01,82.36250417,90.20157744,91.60516287,96.13153582 2002-05-01,82.24843884,90.06417782,91.53509232,96.0005337 2002-06-01,82.14371378,89.92405579,91.45651995,95.86333822 2002-07-01,82.0574251,89.79119932,91.33972219,95.7975161 2002-08-01,82.00125952,89.73989972,91.28755662,95.75783303 2002-09-01,81.96308997,89.72388899,91.21105898,95.78595056 2002-10-01,81.90009557,89.65534683,91.17736654,95.86096208 2002-11-01,81.81377512,89.51788363,91.0981264,95.89620446 2002-12-01,81.72101038,89.40864295,91.07335901,95.95760297 2003-01-01,81.60073665,89.37007074,91.09790124,95.95068506 2003-02-01,81.48931082,89.27968716,91.05280181,95.85239977 2003-03-01,81.36887153,89.24283881,91.00133509,95.84075552 2003-04-01,81.27823239,89.23228431,90.9846114,95.79092852 2003-05-01,81.17670343,89.19687291,90.88607607,95.777439 2003-06-01,81.10111807,89.11492128,90.85462271,95.75116459 2003-07-01,81.01290098,89.07954556,90.85253662,95.68236164 2003-08-01,80.89671927,89.08059475,90.70550873,95.55345041 2003-09-01,80.81805408,89.01500374,90.5814886,95.47591745 2003-10-01,80.77122772,88.9415186,90.4488852,95.48037621 2003-11-01,80.79306693,88.94672786,90.35726232,95.43271575 2003-12-01,80.87152054,88.93099692,90.24150197,95.40312702 2004-01-01,80.98786151,88.94392206,90.24204711,95.38292674 2004-02-01,81.01251864,88.94969881,90.19559471,95.44954878 2004-03-01,80.95452398,89.0347438,90.13081312,95.52299694 2004-04-01,80.96725013,89.11484448,90.07993084,95.5613323 2004-05-01,80.97543192,89.24038802,90.07836661,95.62962682 2004-06-01,81.01145346,89.40924648,90.03290061,95.77058428 2004-07-01,81.07104361,89.51427727,90.06225023,95.7911031 2004-08-01,81.12901637,89.56329958,90.15282272,95.86586277 2004-09-01,81.12330888,89.67875027,90.25714906,95.91079242 2004-10-01,81.13985085,89.81440837,90.33156807,95.86564403 2004-11-01,81.15934456,89.90835337,90.4359528,95.8887504 2004-12-01,81.0395606,90.00056933,90.54682327,95.92090273 2005-01-01,81.00917613,90.03719644,90.54442868,95.94705784 2005-02-01,81.02205542,90.08911423,90.59370074,95.94749149 2005-03-01,81.14306899,90.09449217,90.60409139,95.94983052 2005-04-01,81.27197989,90.12192537,90.61806462,96.01533127 2005-05-01,81.3683631,90.18976394,90.59479147,96.00625775 2005-06-01,81.46353746,90.21650221,90.63104149,95.99794594 2005-07-01,81.55597657,90.20251459,90.6328678,96.02166906 2005-08-01,81.66885834,90.22240538,90.79690035,96.11705979 2005-09-01,81.76363442,90.21054731,90.84696764,96.13747401 2005-10-01,81.87001242,90.21032604,90.88343296,96.19843828 2005-11-01,81.91624737,90.2810092,90.93511158,96.19665658 2005-12-01,81.99547258,90.27292812,91.01728762,96.23851284 2006-01-01,82.06746638,90.34528714,91.09433436,96.27078204 2006-02-01,82.09152097,90.37294448,91.12688655,96.29243679 2006-03-01,82.16994327,90.42086314,91.17692907,96.30357362 2006-04-01,82.1934088,90.41989407,91.22485994,96.28129505 2006-05-01,82.21526177,90.36386433,91.29213245,96.32738947 2006-06-01,82.20974808,90.41881658,91.36349398,96.33920409 2006-07-01,82.1748813,90.46578598,91.42309107,96.42685343 2006-08-01,82.16315414,90.40592534,91.40811773,96.41803054 2006-09-01,82.18349829,90.43830434,91.49028766,96.38064318 2006-10-01,82.22803068,90.48758948,91.55777388,96.37472369 2006-11-01,82.29740465,90.531689,91.64524695,96.38417143 2006-12-01,82.38714041,90.5850154,91.68888287,96.37857112 2007-01-01,82.44648773,90.60976877,91.77157618,96.39001619 2007-02-01,82.5047267,90.6218041,91.86768027,96.4295204 2007-03-01,82.45198576,90.62320167,92.01210455,96.47914432 2007-04-01,82.43306596,90.66957411,92.11446687,96.47267981 2007-05-01,82.43718751,90.64049702,92.24182529,96.44557154 2007-06-01,82.43089616,90.61593722,92.27974206,96.45579316 2007-07-01,82.41061976,90.70708262,92.29112217,96.36764018 2007-08-01,82.35251329,90.87871796,92.30229984,96.2679236 2007-09-01,82.28552348,90.94055466,92.27666539,96.24837089 2007-10-01,82.2024776,90.93658621,92.2902885,96.21914572 2007-11-01,82.19418349,90.91524342,92.29223789,96.22381681 2007-12-01,82.15630519,90.93006523,92.26785838,96.19215034 2008-01-01,82.09875435,90.85402564,92.22667136,96.18727645 2008-02-01,81.99906665,90.87609164,92.21555369,96.19484154 2008-03-01,81.88409083,90.91917573,92.17690319,96.11867879 2008-04-01,81.73549019,90.87998841,92.12845416,96.10554753 2008-05-01,81.60074438,90.88473566,92.01161132,96.13673783 2008-06-01,81.46924717,90.845261,91.93461097,96.08483507 2008-07-01,81.36586201,90.73219024,91.87553454,96.04630717 2008-08-01,81.25993868,90.51208208,91.82464086,96.07058968 2008-09-01,81.06058634,90.29966803,91.7980238,96.04894515 2008-10-01,80.87017258,90.06622828,91.76108219,96.05763841 2008-11-01,80.57787272,89.84678618,91.65316561,96.03524427 2008-12-01,80.22457186,89.53569637,91.47896484,95.93727934 2009-01-01,79.80470045,89.13887597,91.27486238,95.79778308 2009-02-01,79.38977387,88.61743918,91.00345557,95.62005325 2009-03-01,78.93270276,88.02435383,90.72110816,95.50269327 2009-04-01,78.49335478,87.43410125,90.45886373,95.39100806 2009-05-01,78.00833289,86.85400755,90.1929861,95.23446752 2009-06-01,77.53287179,86.31027119,89.93497078,95.0682253 2009-07-01,77.06155133,85.84163416,89.66099672,94.89373076 2009-08-01,76.6051191,85.47529015,89.41291967,94.73933696 2009-09-01,76.1634519,85.13872725,89.13266429,94.58927277 2009-10-01,75.66719715,84.8041158,88.96608532,94.45461261 2009-11-01,75.23321431,84.4576759,88.7875752,94.26824281 2009-12-01,74.85675354,84.10388036,88.68210055,94.16577123 2010-01-01,74.58025463,83.86892952,88.59180797,94.09226517 2010-02-01,74.38695349,83.72559853,88.49615981,94.02037374 2010-03-01,74.2304814,83.6165298,88.448366,94.02771963 2010-04-01,74.16521106,83.56267027,88.44186181,94.05018743 2010-05-01,74.1324855,83.52766891,88.47277454,94.11495998 2010-06-01,74.08613461,83.46919845,88.50315364,94.16146769 2010-07-01,74.07828923,83.47050723,88.45018859,94.18817671 2010-08-01,74.0691622,83.44652194,88.38851865,94.20263996 2010-09-01,74.09547368,83.40357953,88.32009615,94.29815076 2010-10-01,74.20168727,83.39417486,88.17726367,94.30660797 2010-11-01,74.25569237,83.30565307,88.06561375,94.35389169 2010-12-01,74.3357585,83.33762408,88.0312561,94.39041489 2011-01-01,74.41980169,83.39900517,88.01489217,94.46917788 2011-02-01,74.4987129,83.49813768,88.03743964,94.61349151 2011-03-01,74.55953346,83.55711991,88.05307482,94.70701573 2011-04-01,74.53642454,83.52803979,88.01380618,94.74398545 2011-05-01,74.59790668,83.48754088,88.054846,94.66347851 2011-06-01,74.58689734,83.49289355,88.02975945,94.68277031 2011-07-01,74.52652727,83.4993237,88.07534448,94.72989926 2011-08-01,74.47601612,83.56895067,88.12328333,94.80356752 2011-09-01,74.47382354,83.57327344,88.19630091,94.84002555 2011-10-01,74.42642068,83.58561724,88.27649012,94.9195044 2011-11-01,74.49945822,83.77853281,88.383889,95.0063426 2011-12-01,74.61709721,83.96305923,88.42748533,95.10177486 2012-01-01,74.74315078,84.17144547,88.43532575,95.1586573 2012-02-01,74.86348441,84.35218231,88.44902978,95.11955094 2012-03-01,74.98229181,84.53682796,88.47893573,95.04210445 2012-04-01,75.08789254,84.73099531,88.55121158,95.10268004 2012-05-01,75.11070898,84.98933346,88.58264579,95.22486793 2012-06-01,75.27446996,85.17261859,88.63224423,95.28646149 2012-07-01,75.43385633,85.26070896,88.72289659,95.38160037 2012-08-01,75.54265051,85.32898425,88.76751888,95.40740436 2012-09-01,75.67652789,85.49071741,88.87800021,95.37853135 2012-10-01,75.79388293,85.68393033,88.95318563,95.37967928 2012-11-01,75.81312412,85.77777322,89.02281359,95.34046297 2012-12-01,75.84953267,85.83817221,89.10813704,95.30626333 2013-01-01,75.83389215,85.78916258,89.19663956,95.31427241 2013-02-01,75.81475548,85.85153702,89.31439916,95.32320401 2013-03-01,75.87865563,85.95108142,89.35765448,95.34328836 2013-04-01,75.9399496,86.06097202,89.33836155,95.29868337 2013-05-01,76.01563914,86.13714771,89.29981128,95.25143065 2013-06-01,76.06474399,86.25132649,89.25401971,95.23919863 2013-07-01,76.12682135,86.2673906,89.18781268,95.23799569 2013-08-01,76.14272347,86.16373402,89.20500589,95.25814119 2013-09-01,76.15661059,86.09155337,89.15396008,95.30039129 2013-10-01,76.0926757,86.03210639,89.07013425,95.25182986 2013-11-01,76.12118483,86.05933195,88.99148142,95.29374136 2013-12-01,76.07821693,86.1886674,88.92581961,95.37173417 2014-01-01,76.06894615,86.39536865,88.89499162,95.36948784 2014-02-01,76.0802543,86.44401352,88.81102208,95.39232513 2014-03-01,76.13659071,86.45616225,88.7871691,95.40495766 2014-04-01,76.16703247,86.50628157,88.8721845,95.38402522 2014-05-01,76.18397679,86.51852982,88.98685471,95.41850301 2014-06-01,76.24571252,86.54713843,89.13316209,95.38575623 2014-07-01,76.33879975,86.65860976,89.22440238,95.38572139 2014-08-01,76.47550788,86.88260416,89.23555642,95.36644095 2014-09-01,76.56880358,87.0999711,89.29240025,95.36730758 2014-10-01,76.71212101,87.30175627,89.33561853,95.42207729 2014-11-01,76.77386068,87.38351578,89.33560983,95.48772111 2014-12-01,76.92849328,87.36874525,89.35665309,95.47320666 2015-01-01,77.07613166,87.37386309,89.34891982,95.50691039 2015-02-01,77.21061115,87.48909205,89.41139662,95.5090708 2015-03-01,77.32754545,87.60878635,89.52241224,95.52449592 2015-04-01,77.45709758,87.70015823,89.58546231,95.50892052 2015-05-01,77.55928831,87.7803267,89.62956359,95.4658048 2015-06-01,77.61128855,87.79750497,89.68130262,95.49627778 2015-07-01,77.59820855,87.84762753,89.75717632,95.49180492 2015-08-01,77.62414,87.89693793,89.79527962,95.50975914 2015-09-01,77.6479544,87.95638151,89.81895053,95.52374008 2015-10-01,77.69863098,87.93524468,89.86696674,95.46922272 2015-11-01,77.76993346,87.97301709,89.95503476,95.40007593 2015-12-01,77.77799989,88.08233446,90.05777727,95.36844694 2016-01-01,77.87651487,88.14587156,90.17558092,95.34784417 2016-02-01,77.97973073,88.18138154,90.27422439,95.32901026 2016-03-01,78.07630395,88.11158418,90.35205784,95.31777437 2016-04-01,78.13202293,88.11933057,90.31815467,95.3507903 2016-05-01,78.20655288,88.16694774,90.26871082,95.35159847 2016-06-01,78.29556316,88.25785357,90.20766725,95.34714376 2016-07-01,78.36287996,88.34774573,90.16263872,95.35242599 2016-08-01,78.39061615,88.40167547,90.18366086,95.3374057 2016-09-01,78.41117094,88.40653249,90.23926376,95.29745544 2016-10-01,78.44649302,88.43720062,90.34800479,95.32445671 2016-11-01,78.49826459,88.47272315,90.43354439,95.33250551 2016-12-01,78.57317333,88.4893853,90.45347145,95.34266887 2017-01-01,78.5862425,88.526948,90.50821183,95.36273208 2017-02-01,78.61393774,88.54961847,90.46656925,95.39856641 2017-03-01,78.60214694,88.70485898,90.35608787,95.39444084 2017-04-01,78.66969572,88.81634014,90.36425386,95.35696462 2017-05-01,78.69189187,88.86690048,90.38310279,95.37415341 2017-06-01,78.64668366,88.96052744,90.37850564,95.41324895 2017-07-01,78.67798704,88.93758803,90.42882298,95.43827087 2017-08-01,78.68835026,88.86387673,90.44285871,95.400107 2017-09-01,78.7831625,88.91380454,90.46612556,95.46480412 2017-10-01,78.868912,88.98531837,90.48756994,95.46660511 2017-11-01,79.01494585,89.03258386,90.46915436,95.48138467 2017-12-01,79.19918573,89.10620328,90.46504245,95.51499395 2018-01-01,79.32646929,89.16648705,90.43964653,95.47253009 2018-02-01,79.46184806,89.31387768,90.48461249,95.50590689 2018-03-01,79.59877203,89.36144191,90.54661402,95.51336742 2018-04-01,79.67245096,89.42292741,90.56988777,95.57160001 2018-05-01,79.75948077,89.51851798,90.61565471,95.65552922 2018-06-01,79.84663931,89.51834608,90.6574006,95.71484488 2018-07-01,79.88930654,89.63763408,90.68604647,95.79060639 2018-08-01,79.93293116,89.78615817,90.72730928,95.93912263 2018-09-01,79.95298663,89.82921648,90.721181,95.98960147 2018-10-01,80.05447378,89.92645734,90.64760309,95.99383384 2018-11-01,80.12497259,90.03461026,90.67537762,95.99497201 2018-12-01,80.12460149,90.08539818,90.69894953,95.95306349 2019-01-01,80.20398824,90.16639178,90.72134438,95.98514345 2019-02-01,80.21903659,90.18063422,90.77671006,96.01910907 2019-03-01,80.23757671,90.29391383,90.82691689,96.03874743 2019-04-01,80.25570369,90.37396416,90.79230336,96.03713206 2019-05-01,80.24201367,90.46527224,90.73022093,96.03027778 2019-06-01,80.20103028,90.50805645,90.68793526,96.02428854 2019-07-01,80.20238134,90.54282368,90.60511563,95.95581713 2019-08-01,80.27284347,90.63983222,90.56294195,95.89277552 2019-09-01,80.35089034,90.73956867,90.56346085,95.855665 2019-10-01,80.3508655,90.8394124,90.54355449,95.9086632 2019-11-01,80.34483324,90.94211707,90.55877067,95.9318965 2019-12-01,80.3695359,91.03649227,90.55831824,95.95600287 2020-01-01,80.32919298,91.08021706,90.57828413,95.96709754 2020-02-01,80.26652337,90.97962287,90.63365611,95.89800309 2020-03-01,80.12553447,90.77636731,90.61022371,95.83554655 2020-04-01,79.01501578,89.5839997,90.01070428,95.38339908 2020-05-01,78.11589458,88.62755306,89.55449599,95.00067306 2020-06-01,77.48599907,87.85747216,89.15504988,94.69716398 2020-07-01,76.93908826,87.1066775,88.65982795,94.45762879 2020-08-01,76.49632939,86.56587806,88.30459909,94.26957387 2020-09-01,76.03816456,86.00658713,87.99209083,94.07002273 2020-10-01,75.66072669,85.46770491,87.80773415,93.85235488 2020-11-01,75.18799123,84.98023126,87.58026386,93.68921969 2020-12-01,74.69610342,84.47170053,87.39717261,93.58193938 2021-01-01,74.22689675,84.00826219,87.18250265,93.49200436 2021-02-01,73.78893457,83.73231314,86.91162305,93.40105452 2021-03-01,73.43893863,83.48903712,86.79677972,93.30637763 2021-04-01,74.06775515,84.23417553,87.3541789,93.6799414 2021-05-01,74.48597109,84.76351574,87.78300707,93.96978036 2021-06-01,74.77199686,85.15746141,88.09383818,94.19106957 2021-07-01,75.04282896,85.5775761,88.59159331,94.39226947 2021-08-01,75.26532871,85.84477241,88.87069794,94.59386651 2021-09-01,75.47632073,86.16192712,89.06789306,94.7932548 2021-10-01,75.70165709,86.41493212,89.18887607,94.92141318 2021-11-01,75.99178701,86.63426025,89.32253436,95.04325681 2021-12-01,76.2379985,86.96702496,89.45610603,95.16580876 2022-01-01,76.51796992,87.30475139,89.54100489,95.13032687 2022-02-01,76.8729785,87.68978881,89.72176142,95.1901521 2022-03-01,77.22552372,88.03483189,89.80873993,95.35616154 2022-04-01,77.57534934,88.46403523,89.87234139,95.42562053 2022-05-01,78.01280551,88.79713349,89.9602044,95.50282079 2022-06-01,78.31892374,89.1205522,90.0989045,95.54491712 2022-07-01,78.56375206,89.314133,90.23354929,95.55210373 2022-08-01,78.72897514,89.5158484,90.37827733,95.5512014 2022-09-01,78.90423322,89.73276512,90.5078898,95.5225111 2022-10-01,78.98328951,89.88463119,90.6256052,95.55019721 2022-11-01,79.0702598,89.98415015,90.6985615,95.53313033 2022-12-01,79.26201505,89.98191281,90.7542652,95.49360696 2023-01-01,79.40435593,89.95407985,90.86350083,95.50969426 2023-02-01,79.5309073,89.9284291,90.8729833,95.51492211 2023-03-01,79.62945826,89.97994082,90.93045955,95.48923191 2023-04-01,79.66858466,90.01309891,91.00511936,95.45548267 2023-05-01,79.71173835,89.97577952,90.98910122,95.44085657 2023-06-01,79.78523405,90.01261684,91.01320364,95.48150465 2023-07-01,79.82676257,90.14710526,91.00870634,95.45486849
Year,No college degree and no children under age 10,No college degree and has a child under age 10,Has a college degree and no children under age 10,Has a college degree and has a child under age 10 1995,49.20906988,22.92601311,18.87390646,8.991010552 1996,48.76804004,23.0796555,18.97308765,9.179216814 1997,48.84423331,23.01240906,18.98812629,9.155231342 1998,49.01980093,22.48075139,19.22950725,9.269940427 1999,48.5588459,22.02354885,19.96121304,9.456392213 2000,48.60226952,21.71570356,20.25334608,9.428680844 2001,48.98544738,21.25633116,20.29680771,9.461413754 2002,49.17509248,20.98889781,20.16642401,9.669585698 2003,49.40395405,20.90446999,19.88238201,9.809193955 2004,49.22077923,20.90874826,19.88307162,9.987400889 2005,49.75745163,20.71545018,19.82364493,9.703453262 2006,49.95177074,20.46606507,19.84224499,9.739919194 2007,49.84319917,20.16943615,20.00903747,9.978327208 2008,49.99948668,19.76558178,20.11053668,10.12439486 2009,50.37610432,19.66622288,19.87003103,10.08764177 2010,50.32617797,19.74872499,19.95021148,9.974885551 2011,50.07283825,19.53326047,20.25753089,10.13637038 2012,49.82346357,19.24247316,20.80269792,10.13136534 2013,49.29857662,18.79443742,21.6548975,10.25208846 2014,49.21028337,18.64705536,21.73400694,10.40865432 2015,48.53544385,18.43065475,22.32340909,10.71049231 2016,48.01703291,18.06187121,23.06146301,10.85963287 2017,48.08340418,17.54096602,23.58021681,10.79541298 2018,47.43064635,17.23942619,24.41214635,10.9177811 2019,46.78885098,17.17295745,24.97196262,11.06622895 2020,46.40620635,16.53410508,25.63955947,11.42012909 2021,46.26044405,16.2997286,26.20008561,11.23974175 2022,46.35439917,15.91685968,26.37448145,11.35425971 2023,45.65739364,15.49901228,27.34625175,11.49734233
Group YearsFromBirth Estimate Upper Lower Women with a college degree -5 -0.6921673 0.2461811 -1.6305157 Women with a college degree -4 0.2864167 1.0603938 -0.4875605 Women with a college degree -3 0.1830557 0.8125003 -0.446389 Women with a college degree -2 0 0 0 Women with a college degree -1 0.2020363 0.7639723 -0.3598997 Women with a college degree 0 -29.1545007 -27.836973 -30.4720284 Women with a college degree 1 -26.0322762 -24.7372399 -27.3273125 Women with a college degree 2 -29.0288755 -27.689369 -30.3683819 Women with a college degree 3 -29.3519149 -27.9804377 -30.7233921 Women with a college degree 4 -30.3558556 -28.9299892 -31.7817221 Women with a college degree 5 -30.4096724 -28.9308166 -31.8885281 Women with a college degree 6 -29.3962777 -27.8565009 -30.9360545 Women with a college degree 7 -28.7765176 -27.2053436 -30.3476915 Women with a college degree 8 -28.8179232 -27.1955369 -30.4403096 Women with a college degree 9 -26.4335529 -24.7547409 -28.112365 Women with a college degree 10 -25.3133833 -23.5788469 -27.0479197 Women without a college degree -5 1.5284011 2.2785053 0.7782969 Women without a college degree -4 0.1459114 0.7902261 -0.4984033 Women without a college degree -3 0.4087989 0.9767406 -0.1591428 Women without a college degree -2 0 0 0 Women without a college degree -1 0.0663807 0.6173649 -0.4846036 Women without a college degree 0 -32.1888795 -30.9808189 -33.3969401 Women without a college degree 1 -31.536977 -30.3259039 -32.7480501 Women without a college degree 2 -30.7982506 -29.5556112 -32.04089 Women without a college degree 3 -32.4311462 -31.1343099 -33.7279825 Women without a college degree 4 -32.7536946 -31.416082 -34.0913072 Women without a college degree 5 -32.865052 -31.4653158 -34.2647883 Women without a college degree 6 -33.8501885 -32.3722989 -35.328078 Women without a college degree 7 -31.7716241 -30.2461475 -33.2971006 Women without a college degree 8 -30.9333593 -29.3439546 -32.5227639 Women without a college degree 9 -29.1646576 -27.5271347 -30.8021806 Women without a college degree 10 -24.7086814 -23.0225842 -26.3947786 Men -5 0.493401 0.8052374 0.1815646 Men -4 0.5850738 0.8708867 0.2992609 Men -3 0.3139771 0.5680259 0.0599282 Men -2 0 0 0 Men -1 -0.1120981 0.1599428 -0.3841389 Men 0 0.4887628 0.9195574 0.0579682 Men 1 0.0711859 0.5028592 -0.3604875 Men 2 0.2248911 0.6590853 -0.2093031 Men 3 -0.6325123 -0.1809672 -1.0840573 Men 4 -0.6228896 -0.1630734 -1.0827057 Men 5 -0.6819843 -0.200361 -1.1636076 Men 6 -0.5425571 -0.0535992 -1.0315151 Men 7 -0.6532265 -0.1565469 -1.149906 Men 8 -0.0233505 0.4766628 -0.5233639 Men 9 -0.0418097 0.4814937 -0.5651131 Men 10 -0.076633 0.4593874 -0.6126533
Group YearsFromBirth Estimate Upper Lower Women with a college degree -5 1.005259 1.8175026 0.1930154 Women with a college degree -4 0.4094539 1.0891877 -0.2702798 Women with a college degree -3 -0.4874679 0.1222602 -1.097196 Women with a college degree -2 0 0 0 Women with a college degree -1 -0.8232316 -0.2755406 -1.3709226 Women with a college degree 0 -23.9250818 -22.6857718 -25.1643918 Women with a college degree 1 -23.3941961 -22.1457216 -24.6426705 Women with a college degree 2 -25.570828 -24.3099307 -26.8317254 Women with a college degree 3 -28.1411498 -26.8453241 -29.4369755 Women with a college degree 4 -27.914514 -26.6036178 -29.2254101 Women with a college degree 5 -26.8599917 -25.5326929 -28.1872905 Women with a college degree 6 -27.8534378 -26.4741673 -29.2327083 Women with a college degree 7 -27.5602466 -26.1550736 -28.9654196 Women with a college degree 8 -27.5040536 -26.0737627 -28.9343445 Women with a college degree 9 -22.5381587 -21.1313013 -23.945016 Women with a college degree 10 -23.5813538 -22.1279663 -25.0347413 Women without a college degree -5 -1.0625042 -0.3167114 -1.808297 Women without a college degree -4 -0.4182903 0.2523426 -1.0889233 Women without a college degree -3 0.3147048 0.9097873 -0.2803778 Women without a college degree -2 0 0 0 Women without a college degree -1 0.5849531 1.1655953 0.00431 Women without a college degree 0 -27.8410893 -26.6634014 -29.0187773 Women without a college degree 1 -27.2576007 -26.0882702 -28.4269312 Women without a college degree 2 -27.788512 -26.5994937 -28.9775304 Women without a college degree 3 -28.484234 -27.2557584 -29.7127096 Women without a college degree 4 -25.8346693 -24.5800621 -27.0892766 Women without a college degree 5 -27.4509602 -26.1745425 -28.7273779 Women without a college degree 6 -25.0954525 -23.7881028 -26.4028022 Women without a college degree 7 -26.0958126 -24.7513839 -27.4402412 Women without a college degree 8 -22.7225945 -21.341622 -24.103567 Women without a college degree 9 -20.9411981 -19.5365103 -22.345886 Women without a college degree 10 -21.658323 -20.220006 -23.09664 Men -5 0.9673468 1.3388857 0.5958078 Men -4 0.7516916 1.0832902 0.420093 Men -3 0.5293447 0.8326259 0.2260635 Men -2 0 0 0 Men -1 -0.3448328 -0.055155 -0.6345105 Men 0 1.9389865 2.3761215 1.5018515 Men 1 1.1089872 1.5574852 0.6604891 Men 2 1.8395851 2.2732967 1.4058736 Men 3 1.8069265 2.2488403 1.3650126 Men 4 1.8753504 2.3189698 1.431731 Men 5 1.8939581 2.344116 1.4438002 Men 6 1.7583741 2.223716 1.2930322 Men 7 2.1827237 2.6382064 1.7272409 Men 8 1.1420632 1.6372275 0.6468989 Men 9 1.3681722 1.8740042 0.8623402 Men 10 1.1839181 1.6939186 0.6739175
Group YearsFromBirth Estimate Upper Lower Women with a college degree -5 0.3414231 1.1149213 -0.4320751 Women with a college degree -4 0.4753256 1.1370635 -0.1864123 Women with a college degree -3 0.3171526 0.9125756 -0.2782704 Women with a college degree -2 0 0 0 Women with a college degree -1 0.1897615 0.7617534 -0.3822305 Women with a college degree 0 -18.5709222 -17.376941 -19.7649034 Women with a college degree 1 -19.0747996 -17.8910689 -20.2585302 Women with a college degree 2 -19.5133775 -18.3296674 -20.6970876 Women with a college degree 3 -21.4503406 -20.2182467 -22.6824346 Women with a college degree 4 -23.7822369 -22.4970123 -25.0674615 Women with a college degree 5 -24.5008667 -23.2293915 -25.7723418 Women with a college degree 6 -24.721317 -23.4147793 -26.0278547 Women with a college degree 7 -25.1520567 -23.8227991 -26.4813144 Women with a college degree 8 -22.3859884 -21.0553524 -23.7166244 Women with a college degree 9 -24.5068414 -23.142086 -25.8715967 Women with a college degree 10 -22.2402888 -20.8953259 -23.5852517 Women without a college degree -5 -1.0512379 -0.159779 -1.9426968 Women without a college degree -4 0.4094482 1.1965028 -0.3776065 Women without a college degree -3 0.1756438 0.8709826 -0.5196949 Women without a college degree -2 0 0 0 Women without a college degree -1 -1.8007095 -1.105886 -2.495533 Women without a college degree 0 -26.3498447 -25.0739684 -27.6257209 Women without a college degree 1 -23.4131518 -22.1792406 -24.6470631 Women without a college degree 2 -23.7411131 -22.5060187 -24.9762075 Women without a college degree 3 -22.9085596 -21.6842126 -24.1329066 Women without a college degree 4 -24.8716907 -23.6403182 -26.1030633 Women without a college degree 5 -25.6167837 -24.357333 -26.8762344 Women without a college degree 6 -23.0103132 -21.7368758 -24.2837507 Women without a college degree 7 -21.4711931 -20.176641 -22.7657451 Women without a college degree 8 -19.2894417 -17.9877641 -20.5911192 Women without a college degree 9 -19.7721639 -18.444401 -21.0999268 Women without a college degree 10 -17.9830197 -16.6284652 -19.3375742 Men -5 -0.2420753 0.208521 -0.6926715 Men -4 -0.2166584 0.1696814 -0.6029982 Men -3 -0.4034219 -0.0536041 -0.7532397 Men -2 0 0 0 Men -1 0.6793159 0.9970015 0.3616303 Men 0 1.0437154 1.5263369 0.5610939 Men 1 0.8142749 1.2986494 0.3299005 Men 2 1.3436868 1.8147702 0.8726034 Men 3 1.1401522 1.6168212 0.6634832 Men 4 1.3751162 1.8490822 0.9011502 Men 5 1.1198685 1.6001945 0.6395424 Men 6 1.4757361 1.9631911 0.9882811 Men 7 1.157248 1.6677861 0.6467099 Men 8 1.6314111 2.1406917 1.1221305 Men 9 1.3236571 1.8493701 0.797944 Men 10 1.4709615 2.0080041 0.9339189
Group YearsFromBirth Estimate Upper Lower Women with a college degree -5 -0.4637126 0.2254824 -1.1529076 Women with a college degree -4 -0.0376116 0.5989861 -0.6742092 Women with a college degree -3 0.492044 1.051875 -0.067787 Women with a college degree -2 0 0 0 Women with a college degree -1 -1.2192889 -0.6455221 -1.7930556 Women with a college degree 0 -22.2807775 -21.0638892 -23.4976658 Women with a college degree 1 -21.0707492 -19.884876 -22.2566223 Women with a college degree 2 -23.4786542 -22.2482127 -24.7090956 Women with a college degree 3 -23.8127521 -22.5674817 -25.0580226 Women with a college degree 4 -25.3679417 -24.0925742 -26.6433092 Women with a college degree 5 -23.9275952 -22.644492 -25.2106984 Women with a college degree 6 -22.8387383 -21.5265848 -24.1508917 Women with a college degree 7 -24.2416699 -22.898695 -25.5846448 Women with a college degree 8 -22.1771954 -20.8427435 -23.5116473 Women with a college degree 9 -19.7315029 -18.3962471 -21.0667588 Women with a college degree 10 -20.3856481 -19.0376248 -21.7336715 Women without a college degree -5 2.3393673 3.4235607 1.2551739 Women without a college degree -4 0.9214073 1.8732058 -0.0303913 Women without a college degree -3 0.5659944 1.4214456 -0.2894568 Women without a college degree -2 0 0 0 Women without a college degree -1 0.2123318 1.0647382 -0.6400747 Women without a college degree 0 -24.9496961 -23.4496604 -26.4497319 Women without a college degree 1 -20.6494345 -19.1923034 -22.1065657 Women without a college degree 2 -20.3320528 -18.9042337 -21.759872 Women without a college degree 3 -19.532446 -18.1288208 -20.9360713 Women without a college degree 4 -19.4289072 -18.0104164 -20.847398 Women without a college degree 5 -21.6744328 -20.2371866 -23.1116791 Women without a college degree 6 -20.9445567 -19.5109636 -22.3781499 Women without a college degree 7 -18.660628 -17.2283258 -20.0929303 Women without a college degree 8 -16.6323926 -15.2096197 -18.0551656 Women without a college degree 9 -13.9519555 -12.535872 -15.368039 Women without a college degree 10 -13.5592703 -12.1225617 -14.9959788 Men -5 -0.0645307 0.3856542 -0.5147157 Men -4 0.2753293 0.6542258 -0.1035673 Men -3 0.3984603 0.7390289 0.0578917 Men -2 0 0 0 Men -1 -0.3052978 0.0157729 -0.6263685 Men 0 1.1048625 1.5618349 0.6478901 Men 1 0.6480978 1.1056331 0.1905625 Men 2 0.9334907 1.3777767 0.4892047 Men 3 1.1144568 1.5576015 0.6713121 Men 4 1.1938767 1.6488992 0.7388543 Men 5 1.0210317 1.4748395 0.5672239 Men 6 0.9513343 1.4202415 0.4824272 Men 7 0.9283711 1.4000557 0.4566865 Men 8 0.9929495 1.4650385 0.5208604 Men 9 1.0885298 1.5670031 0.6100565 Men 10 0.5466131 1.0520295 0.0411966
Group YearsFromBirth Estimate Upper Lower Women with a college degree -5 -1.7001091 -0.8375484 -2.5626698 Women with a college degree -4 -1.6794467 -0.9351488 -2.4237447 Women with a college degree -3 -0.6187357 0.0411588 -1.2786301 Women with a college degree -2 0 0 0 Women with a college degree -1 -1.8187064 -1.2082514 -2.4291615 Women with a college degree 0 -22.7589894 -21.5444683 -23.9735105 Women with a college degree 1 -22.4364729 -21.2628348 -23.6101109 Women with a college degree 2 -23.3917494 -22.2120734 -24.5714254 Women with a college degree 3 -24.7105444 -23.5258575 -25.8952312 Women with a college degree 4 -25.9912033 -24.7799229 -27.2024837 Women with a college degree 5 -24.1408129 -22.9265966 -25.3550293 Women with a college degree 6 -23.4339609 -22.2021032 -24.6658185 Women with a college degree 7 -24.1181698 -22.8433311 -25.3930084 Women with a college degree 8 -23.9952065 -22.7081419 -25.2822711 Women with a college degree 9 -21.8408471 -20.5529459 -23.1287484 Women with a college degree 10 -20.5408268 -19.2362868 -21.8453669 Women without a college degree -5 3.3907715 4.6475239 2.1340191 Women without a college degree -4 2.3969063 3.5241585 1.2696541 Women without a college degree -3 1.906284 2.9571139 0.8554541 Women without a college degree -2 0 0 0 Women without a college degree -1 -0.0417476 1.0191853 -1.1026805 Women without a college degree 0 -25.4092698 -23.676666 -27.1418737 Women without a college degree 1 -22.2465687 -20.5753254 -23.917812 Women without a college degree 2 -20.9212976 -19.2570981 -22.5854971 Women without a college degree 3 -21.2799987 -19.6235643 -22.9364331 Women without a college degree 4 -21.5724334 -19.9018871 -23.2429796 Women without a college degree 5 -21.9368114 -20.2745467 -23.5990761 Women without a college degree 6 -19.9326054 -18.2676356 -21.5975751 Women without a college degree 7 -18.9578379 -17.2933025 -20.6223734 Women without a college degree 8 -15.5601554 -13.9133652 -17.2069457 Women without a college degree 9 -13.9382387 -12.299649 -15.5768283 Women without a college degree 10 -11.1491494 -9.5145252 -12.7837736 Men -5 0.5899744 1.0467514 0.1331975 Men -4 0.550972 0.9640203 0.1379238 Men -3 0.3323025 0.717024 -0.0524189 Men -2 0 0 0 Men -1 0.6273379 0.986664 0.2680117 Men 0 1.855609 2.387144 1.324074 Men 1 1.8634008 2.3833046 1.343497 Men 2 1.7433074 2.2616892 1.2249257 Men 3 2.4369298 2.930855 1.9430046 Men 4 1.8037559 2.3269165 1.2805952 Men 5 1.8922498 2.4131745 1.371325 Men 6 1.3995364 1.9360378 0.8630351 Men 7 2.2192252 2.7447898 1.6936606 Men 8 0.8594865 1.4176259 0.3013471 Men 9 1.4358783 1.9945713 0.8771854 Men 10 1.9012985 2.4700124 1.3325846
Group YearsFromBirth Estimate Upper Lower Women with a college degree -5 1.5549615 2.3513896 0.7585333 Women with a college degree -4 1.7310397 2.413264 1.0488153 Women with a college degree -3 1.3756924 1.9856312 0.7657537 Women with a college degree -2 0 0 0 Women with a college degree -1 0.8409126 1.4266054 0.2552197 Women with a college degree 0 -15.3936713 -14.2207139 -16.5666287 Women with a college degree 1 -16.4498966 -15.2937559 -17.6060373 Women with a college degree 2 -20.0765771 -18.8901973 -21.262957 Women with a college degree 3 -19.0065891 -17.8324546 -20.1807236 Women with a college degree 4 -20.7110348 -19.5156808 -21.9063889 Women with a college degree 5 -19.4447935 -18.238618 -20.6509689 Women with a college degree 6 -20.162537 -18.9317739 -21.3933002 Women with a college degree 7 -18.5817955 -17.3287184 -19.8348725 Women with a college degree 8 -19.352128 -18.0795914 -20.6246646 Women with a college degree 9 -19.2351545 -17.9407221 -20.5295869 Women with a college degree 10 -18.4004741 -17.0882327 -19.7127155 Women without a college degree -5 1.7846441 3.15824 0.4110481 Women without a college degree -4 0.5094648 1.6887603 -0.6698308 Women without a college degree -3 1.0993752 2.1704608 0.0282896 Women without a college degree -2 0 0 0 Women without a college degree -1 -1.7560246 -0.6632966 -2.8487526 Women without a college degree 0 -24.9912165 -23.2150801 -26.7673528 Women without a college degree 1 -20.6829546 -18.9192064 -22.4467028 Women without a college degree 2 -20.6331828 -18.8941217 -22.372244 Women without a college degree 3 -20.3306363 -18.5803881 -22.0808845 Women without a college degree 4 -19.2672211 -17.5312005 -21.0032418 Women without a college degree 5 -19.7392496 -17.9663106 -21.5121886 Women without a college degree 6 -21.5788697 -19.7797955 -23.3779439 Women without a college degree 7 -20.7015825 -18.8973273 -22.5058377 Women without a college degree 8 -19.5520748 -17.7493107 -21.3548388 Women without a college degree 9 -18.4201381 -16.6228841 -20.2173921 Women without a college degree 10 -17.1637012 -15.3750569 -18.9523454 Men -5 0.3660277 0.8714262 -0.1393709 Men -4 0.0746826 0.5352314 -0.3858662 Men -3 0.2951984 0.704283 -0.1138861 Men -2 0 0 0 Men -1 0.1005785 0.5104157 -0.3092586 Men 0 1.5245917 2.1752814 0.873902 Men 1 1.1267022 1.7640001 0.4894043 Men 2 1.0045768 1.6312545 0.3778992 Men 3 1.6164741 2.2337757 0.9991725 Men 4 2.1883157 2.7954656 1.5811658 Men 5 1.8200568 2.4419354 1.1981782 Men 6 1.047497 1.6860564 0.4089377 Men 7 2.0718278 2.7085973 1.4350583 Men 8 1.549936 2.2019934 0.8978785 Men 9 1.5229731 2.180609 0.8653372 Men 10 2.0384146 2.7103796 1.3664496
Group YearsFromBirth Estimate Upper Lower Women with a college degree -5 0.4087286 1.2663514 -0.4488941 Women with a college degree -4 -0.1115762 0.6271048 -0.8502572 Women with a college degree -3 -0.4384015 0.2197546 -1.0965577 Women with a college degree -2 0 0 0 Women with a college degree -1 0.314736 0.9089523 -0.2794802 Women with a college degree 0 -16.4869424 -15.2934104 -17.6804745 Women with a college degree 1 -15.9867872 -14.853131 -17.1204433 Women with a college degree 2 -17.6851081 -16.5445141 -18.8257021 Women with a college degree 3 -19.8544009 -18.7074919 -21.00131 Women with a college degree 4 -19.6959817 -18.5595678 -20.8323956 Women with a college degree 5 -19.9001089 -18.7408809 -21.0593369 Women with a college degree 6 -20.2481829 -19.0853347 -21.4110311 Women with a college degree 7 -18.6121533 -17.4437613 -19.7805453 Women with a college degree 8 -18.8440748 -17.644269 -20.0438807 Women with a college degree 9 -18.5865659 -17.3849861 -19.7881457 Women with a college degree 10 -17.0192253 -15.8114566 -18.2269941 Women without a college degree -5 -0.8062211 0.8725501 -2.4849923 Women without a college degree -4 -0.2432097 1.1855024 -1.6719218 Women without a college degree -3 -0.6631853 0.6291927 -1.9555633 Women without a college degree -2 0 0 0 Women without a college degree -1 0.3871545 1.6536343 -0.8793252 Women without a college degree 0 -26.2940913 -24.2738254 -28.3143572 Women without a college degree 1 -23.7088976 -21.7984282 -25.619367 Women without a college degree 2 -21.3931875 -19.5138643 -23.2725108 Women without a college degree 3 -23.4452982 -21.5428837 -25.3477126 Women without a college degree 4 -23.0836775 -21.1861842 -24.9811707 Women without a college degree 5 -19.6616192 -17.7690542 -21.5541843 Women without a college degree 6 -16.9414107 -15.0318299 -18.8509915 Women without a college degree 7 -20.9774085 -19.0416935 -22.9131235 Women without a college degree 8 -20.7454421 -18.7974031 -22.6934812 Women without a college degree 9 -18.4380077 -16.4851153 -20.3909001 Women without a college degree 10 -16.9583683 -14.9877541 -18.9289825 Men -5 1.1731237 1.8361824 0.510065 Men -4 1.1929394 1.7874454 0.5984333 Men -3 0.3784049 0.9100001 -0.1531904 Men -2 0 0 0 Men -1 0.6004076 1.092609 0.1082063 Men 0 2.7184381 3.3770761 2.0598001 Men 1 2.3034635 2.9315678 1.6753591 Men 2 1.8436962 2.4722271 1.2151653 Men 3 2.0003823 2.6200385 1.380726 Men 4 1.8061295 2.4258706 1.1863884 Men 5 1.448881 2.085784 0.8119779 Men 6 2.1297643 2.7596716 1.4998571 Men 7 1.4427443 2.0928713 0.7926172 Men 8 1.2290555 1.8937985 0.5643125 Men 9 1.7756765 2.4466231 1.1047298 Men 10 2.2367809 2.9097269 1.5638348
Group YearsFromBirth Estimate Upper Lower Women with a college degree -5 -0.2304809 0.6926124 -1.1535741 Women with a college degree -4 -1.3582705 -0.5569284 -2.1596126 Women with a college degree -3 -0.2385224 0.5235924 -1.0006372 Women with a college degree -2 0 0 0 Women with a college degree -1 -0.3968203 0.3332759 -1.1269165 Women with a college degree 0 -11.4781801 -10.1091239 -12.8472364 Women with a college degree 1 -11.5254254 -10.2246287 -12.826222 Women with a college degree 2 -16.5014724 -15.1537944 -17.8491504 Women with a college degree 3 -18.1787532 -16.8485844 -19.508922 Women with a college degree 4 -17.234928 -15.9251347 -18.5447212 Women with a college degree 5 -16.7994628 -15.4848842 -18.1140413 Women with a college degree 6 -16.6891941 -15.3630804 -18.0153077 Women with a college degree 7 -15.6774502 -14.3519711 -17.0029293 Women with a college degree 8 -18.2291812 -16.86157 -19.5967924 Women with a college degree 9 -15.6570095 -14.2943828 -17.0196361 Women with a college degree 10 -16.727088 -15.3335759 -18.1206001 Women without a college degree -5 5.2712941 7.5496609 2.9929273 Women without a college degree -4 1.6419923 3.5065812 -0.2225966 Women without a college degree -3 0.0569744 1.7256502 -1.6117015 Women without a college degree -2 0 0 0 Women without a college degree -1 1.5638518 3.2022578 -0.0745542 Women without a college degree 0 -24.2556253 -21.6682386 -26.8430121 Women without a college degree 1 -21.4295965 -18.9167152 -23.9424779 Women without a college degree 2 -19.5477638 -17.0388921 -22.0566354 Women without a college degree 3 -19.7449914 -17.2511953 -22.2387874 Women without a college degree 4 -18.7339533 -16.2267612 -21.2411453 Women without a college degree 5 -18.195838 -15.6659462 -20.7257298 Women without a college degree 6 -18.0822881 -15.5465668 -20.6180093 Women without a college degree 7 -15.3198087 -12.7647807 -17.8748366 Women without a college degree 8 -14.4998318 -11.9301067 -17.0695569 Women without a college degree 9 -14.8433996 -12.2889412 -17.3978579 Women without a college degree 10 -13.6510458 -11.066488 -16.2356037 Men -5 0.7317445 1.5050649 -0.0415758 Men -4 0.3721145 1.0159176 -0.2716886 Men -3 -0.413927 0.1445492 -0.9724032 Men -2 0 0 0 Men -1 -0.4841097 0.0511148 -1.0193343 Men 0 1.5290712 2.3024687 0.7556736 Men 1 1.6109202 2.3397358 0.8821045 Men 2 1.5792835 2.2935909 0.8649761 Men 3 1.9731523 2.6523044 1.2940003 Men 4 1.8350874 2.5423395 1.1278353 Men 5 1.6972114 2.4081287 0.9862941 Men 6 1.0783966 1.8037688 0.3530244 Men 7 1.4566943 2.1932723 0.7201163 Men 8 1.3644516 2.1114643 0.6174389 Men 9 1.1032484 1.8776112 0.3288855 Men 10 1.8154762 2.5841304 1.0468221
Year,All adults 1994,68.556168 1996,64.002281 1998,65.542625 2000,59.856556 2002,61.075466 2004,63.214531 2006,65.732262 2008,71.203636 2010,74.343582 2012,70.780266 2014,75.513809 2016,74.599068 2018,73.044426 2021,80.395203 2022,75.255493
Year,Has a college degree,No college degree 1994,84.844955,71.63195 1996,77.165169,70.089249 1998,79.586571,70.726364 2000,71.787216,62.494373 2002,68.953201,63.645023 2004,77.083488,66.77079 2006,78.233078,66.804413 2008,89.663536,76.441017 2010,90.140228,76.269402 2012,88.146408,72.853088 2014,82.45771,78.058647 2016,86.151276,73.652512 2018,83.814552,75.567558 2021,89.064552,82.302498 2022,84.54007,78.149338