Key Points
Scale & Geography: There were 1.3 million TPS holders living in the U.S. as of March 2025, with nearly half in Florida. Five countries (Venezuela, Haiti, El Salvador, Ukraine, Honduras) account for 97% of all recipients.
Labor Market Concentration: TPS workers comprise 8 to 10% of hours worked in certain occupations in major metros. Compared to U.S.-born workers, TPS workers are 5.4 times more likely to work in building and grounds cleaning, 3.2 times more likely work in construction, and twice as likely to work in transportation, making them critical to these sectors.
Economic Contribution: TPS workers generated $35.9 billion in GDP in 2023, with $10.7 billion from Florida alone, followed by Texas ($4.3B), California ($3.6B), and New York ($2.8B).
550,000 Workers Lose Status by End of 2025: Potential Impact by State and Industry
Temporary Protected Status (TPS) is a humanitarian designation under the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) that allows the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) to provide protection to nationals of countries facing armed conflict, environmental disaster, or other extraordinary conditions. As of March 31, 2025, about 1.3 million foreign-born individuals hold TPS in the United States. TPS provides protection from deportation and authorization to work but does not lead to permanent immigration status. The Trump administration has moved to terminate TPS designations for several countries, citing that conditions in those countries no longer meet the criteria for protection.1 These terminations would affect the majority of TPS holders. In this brief, we draw on data obtained through Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) requests to USCIS and reports from the Congressional Research Service (CRS), combined with our own estimates, to provide a comprehensive picture of the evolution of the TPS population.
Since its creation in 1990, about 30 countries have received TPS designations. Figure 1 provides a historical timeline of the TPS program, including the anticipated expiration dates of all ongoing designations active as of March 31, 2025.
Source: Federal Register data.
Notes: A continuous bar indicates that a country’s required TPS arrival date has remained unchanged since its initial designation. When DHS redesignates a country with a more recent arrival date, expanding eligibility, the timeline is marked with a diamond along the same bar. Designations active as of March 31, 2025, are highlighted in dark blue.
All TPS applications and approvals are recorded by U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS). Figure 2 shows the historical number of TPS holders by country of origin, presenting both country-level counts and aggregate totals over time. The figure illustrates how the composition of the TPS population has evolved as eligibility changed through granting, extension, termination, or redesignation of TPS for different countries. The total number of TPS holders rose sharply in the 2000s with the designations of Honduras and El Salvador, increasing from about 55,000 in 2000 to roughly 360,000 in 2010. The population then remained relatively stable for the next decade before surging again after Venezuela’s initial designation in 2021. By March 2025, the total number of TPS holders had nearly tripled compared to 2010, reaching almost 1.3 million.
Source: PWBM calculations based on USCIS and CRS data.
Notes: Bars show quarter-end counts, with only the five countries with the largest TPS populations disaggregated. The numbers exclude TPS holders who transitioned to U.S. citizens or lawful permanent residents.
The 17 countries with active TPS designations as of March 31, 2025, are shown in dark blue in Figure 1. These countries vary considerably in both the length of their designation and the number of recipients. Four—Honduras, Nicaragua, Somalia, and Sudan—were first designated in the 1990s and have since been continuously extended or redesignated.2 By contrast, six countries received their initial designations only after 2021.
By recipient count, Venezuela, first designated in 2021, has the largest TPS population, with more than 600,000 beneficiaries as of March 31, 2025, representing 47% of the total. Haiti follows with over 300,000 recipients, or 25%. Together, the top five countries—Venezuela, Haiti, El Salvador, Ukraine, and Honduras—account for 97% of all TPS beneficiaries.
| Country | Initial Designation Year | Current Designation Year | Current Designation Continued Through | TPS holders (excluding USCs and LPRs) by March 31, 2025 | Share (%) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Venezuela* | 2021 | 2021 | Nov. 7, 2025 | 605,015 | 46.6% |
| Haiti | 2010 | 2024 | Feb. 3, 2026 | 330,735 | 25.5% |
| El Salvador | 1990 | 2001 | Sept. 9, 2026 | 170,125 | 13.1% |
| Ukraine | 2022 | 2022 | Oct. 19, 2026 | 101,150 | 7.8% |
| Honduras | 1999 | 1999 | Sept. 8, 2025 | 51,225 | 3.9% |
| Afghanistan | 2022 | 2023 | July 14, 2025 | 8,105 | <1% |
| Nepal | 2015 | 2015 | Aug. 20, 2025 | 7,160 | <1% |
| Cameroon | 2022 | 2023 | Aug. 4, 2025 | 4,920 | <1% |
| Ethiopia | 2022 | 2024 | Dec. 12, 2025 | 4,540 | <1% |
| Syria | 2012 | 2024 | Sept. 30, 2025 | 3,860 | <1% |
| Burma | 2021 | 2024 | Nov. 25, 2025 | 3,670 | <1% |
| Nicaragua | 1999 | 1999 | Sept. 8, 2025 | 2,910 | <1% |
| Sudan | 1997 | 2023 | Oct. 19, 2026 | 1,790 | <1% |
| Yemen | 2015 | 2024 | March 3, 2026 | 1,380 | <1% |
| Somalia | 1991 | 2024 | March 17, 2026 | 705 | <1% |
| South Sudan | 2011 | 2023 | Nov. 3, 2025 | 210 | <1% |
| Lebanon | 1991 | 2024 | May 27, 2026 | 140 | <1% |
| Total | 1,297,640 |
Sources: PWBM calculations based on USCIS and CRS data.
Notes: (*) Venezuela has both a 2021 designation, set to expire on November 7, 2025, and a 2023 designation that was terminated on April 7, 2025. However, TPS-related documents issued under the 2023 designation on or before February 5, 2025 with October 2, 2026, expiration dates will remain valid until October 2, 2026. See more details here and here.
TPS holders are also heavily concentrated geographically within the United States, with the states of Florida, Texas, New York, California, and Georgia jointly accounting for about 60% of the total TPS population. Florida alone represents 31%, or roughly 400,000 individuals, far surpassing Texas, the state with the second-largest TPS population, at 11%. This concentration is a relatively recent development. Although the top four states (Florida, Texas, New York, and California) have long been the same, their shares were more evenly distributed in 2020, when each accounted for about 15% of all TPS holders.3 Since 2021, all four have seen growth in beneficiaries, but Florida’s increase has been especially sharp, rising from fewer than 60,000 to more than 400,000 by 2025, largely driven by the Venezuelan designations.
| State | TPS holders (excluding USCs and LPRs) by March 31, 2025 | Share (%) |
|---|---|---|
| Florida | 403,965 | 31.1% |
| Texas | 147,080 | 11.3% |
| New York | 98,250 | 7.6% |
| California | 79,320 | 6.1% |
| Georgia | 50,100 | 3.9% |
| Other | 518,925 | 40.0% |
| Total | 1,297,640 |
Sources: PWBM calculations based on USCIS and CRS data.
Notes: Only the five states with the highest numbers of beneficiaries are disaggregated.
TPS is a temporary form of protection and a designation can be terminated once conditions in the designated country are deemed to have improved or DHS considers that it is contrary to the national interest. By the end of 2025, ten designations that were active at the start of the year are scheduled to end: Afghanistan, Cameroon, Honduras, Nepal, Nicaragua, Venezuela, Burma, Ethiopia, Syria, and South Sudan. Notably, this includes Venezuela, which has the largest TPS population, and Honduras, another top five country.
If the country-level distribution of TPS holders mirrors that of early 2025, the scheduled terminations would affect more than half of the TPS population—leaving over 700,000 people at risk of deportation and without legal authorization to work in the United States, with another 300,000 projected to lose protection early next year from the Haiti designation expiration.
To examine the characteristics of the TPS population beyond aggregate counts by country of origin and state of residence, we identify likely TPS holders in the American Community Survey (ACS) microdata. Because TPS status is not directly observed in public datasets, we apply a “logical edits” and raking procedure to augment the ACS data.4 The resulting sample includes all foreign-born individuals who meet TPS eligibility criteria and show no clear indications of holding another legal status in the U.S., making them highly likely TPS applicants. Their assigned probabilities of being TPS holders are calibrated to match USCIS counts by both country of origin and state of residence. The analysis that follows draws on this ACS-based TPS sample, with additional details of the assignment procedure provided in the appendix of this brief.
Pooling the 2022 and 2023 ACS civilian, non-institutional population records for individuals aged 16 and older, we find that identified TPS beneficiaries are, on average, younger, disproportionately male, more likely to be Hispanic, and have lower levels of educational attainment than both U.S.-born individuals and other foreign-born groups identified as non-TPS holders.5 While an estimated 38.9% of TPS holders have less than a high school education, the share is only 10.7% among U.S.-born individuals and 24.8% among non-TPS foreign-born groups. Table 3 summarizes these characteristics.6
TPS holders also tend to have spent fewer years in the United States than other foreign-born groups and display less variation in both age and duration of residence, suggesting a more homogeneous population along these dimensions. In addition, they are more likely to report limited English proficiency compared to other foreign-born groups.
| TPS | U.S. born | Foreign-born, non-TPS | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Age | 44.0 | 47.0 | 48.8 |
| Age (standard deviation) | 12.6 | 19.4 | 16.8 |
| Female (%) | 47.2 | 51.1 | 51.3 |
| Hispanic (%) | 77.8 | 12.5 | 44.1 |
| Education: Less than high school (%) | 38.9 | 10.7 | 24.8 |
| Education: High school (%) | 24.3 | 26.8 | 22.4 |
| Education: Some college (%) | 16.1 | 29.7 | 18.9 |
| Education: College (%) | 14.0 | 20.7 | 18.8 |
| Education: Advanced degree (%) | 6.7 | 12.1 | 15.0 |
| Years of residence in the U.S. | 17.7 | N/A | 25.1 |
| Years of residence (standard deviation) | 12.6 | N/A | 16.1 |
| Does not speak English or does not do it well (%) | 44.3 | 0.5 | 25.5 |
Source: PWBM calculations based on 2022-2023 ACS data.
In this section, we show both unadjusted differences and differences adjusted for socioeconomic characteristics in labor market outcomes between TPS holders, U.S.-born individuals, and other foreign-born non-TPS groups.
On average, we estimate that TPS beneficiaries have a labor force participation rate nearly 15 percentage points higher than U.S.-born individuals and 11.8 points higher than the non-TPS foreign-born population. Among men, TPS holders participate in the labor market at a rate almost 21 points above U.S.-born men (89.4% vs. 68.7%). For women, participation is 68.2% among TPS holders compared to 60.4% among U.S.-born women, a 7.8-point gap. This pattern contrasts with the non-TPS foreign-born population, where men’s participation also substantially exceeds that of U.S.-born men, but women’s participation falls below that of their U.S.-born counterparts.
| Gender | TPS | U.S. born | Foreign-born, non-TPS |
|---|---|---|---|
| Men | 89.4 | 68.7 | 77.4 |
| Women | 68.2 | 60.4 | 58.4 |
| Overall | 79.4 | 64.5 | 67.6 |
Source: PWBM calculations based on 2022-2023 ACS data.
After adjusting for age, gender, Hispanic origin, education level, years of residence in the United States, English language proficiency, and state of residence, the overall participation gap between TPS workers and U.S.-born individuals turns negative, at -7.2 percentage points.7 This sharp contrast with the unadjusted results in Table 4 reflects the fact that TPS holders are disproportionately younger and male—characteristics typically associated with higher labor market participation. The difference with the broader foreign-born population, however, remains positive: on average, TPS holders are 5.9 percentage points more likely to participate in the labor force than their non-TPS foreign-born counterparts with similar observable characteristics. By gender, TPS men participate at rates 3.4 points lower than U.S.-born men but 4.4 points higher than non-TPS foreign-born men. TPS women, however, participate at substantially lower rates than U.S.-born women after adjusting for demographic characteristics (12.1 points less), though they remain 6.8 points more likely to participate than other foreign-born women not eligible for TPS.
We estimate that TPS holders make up about 0.2% of the total U.S. labor force and 1.4% of the foreign-born labor force. Their presence, however, is more concentrated in certain subgroups. For instance, they represent nearly 1% of all workers without a high school diploma and 2.4% of the foreign-born labor force at that education level. In some state economies—particularly Florida, Maryland, and Washington, D.C.—TPS holders account for between 3% and 4% of the total foreign-born population. Figure 3 presents the estimated share of TPS workers within the foreign-born labor force by state.
| Education | Share of overall labor force (%) | Share of foreign-born labor force (%) |
|---|---|---|
| Less than high school | 1.0 | 2.4 |
| High school | 0.2 | 1.5 |
| Some college | 0.1 | 1.2 |
| College | 0.2 | 1.0 |
| Advanced degree | 0.1 | 0.5 |
| Overall | 0.2 | 1.4 |
Source: PWBM calculations based on 2022-2023 ACS data.
Source: PWBM calculations based on 2022-2023 ACS data.
Notes: Only states with over 100 unweighted potential TPS observations are plotted.
Full-time employment is more common among TPS workers than among either U.S.-born individuals or other foreign-born, non-TPS workers. We estimate that 75.9% of TPS workers are employed full time, compared with 73.9% of other foreign-born workers and 69.7% of U.S.-born workers.8 In other words, TPS workers are about six percentage points more likely than U.S.-born workers and two points more likely than other foreign-born workers to hold full-time jobs.
Relative to both U.S.-born and other foreign-born workers, TPS holders are also heavily concentrated in construction, cleaning and maintenance, and transportation occupations. They are 5.4 times more likely than U.S.-born workers to work in building and grounds cleaning and maintenance (14.5% vs. 2.7%), 3.2 times more likely to be employed in construction (14.6% vs. 4.5%), and twice as likely to work in transportation and material moving (14.4% vs. 7.0%). Figure 4 shows the distribution of workers across occupational groups for TPS, U.S.-born, and other foreign-born individuals.
Source: PWBM calculations based on 2022-2023 ACS data.
TPS workers contribute a substantial share of total hours worked in these three occupational groups, particularly within certain local economies. For example, in the Washington–Arlington–Alexandria, DC-VA-MD-WV metropolitan area, we estimate that TPS holders account for 8.3% of all hours worked in construction and 9.3% in building and grounds cleaning and maintenance. In Miami-Fort Lauderdale-West Palm Beach, FL, they contribute around 4% of hours worked in transportation and material moving. Figure 5 presents the top ten metropolitan areas where we estimate TPS workers contribute the most to total hours worked in these occupational groups.
(A) Transportation and Material Moving
(B) Construction
(C) Building and Grounds Cleaning and Maintenance
Source: PWBM calculations based on 2022-2023 ACS data.
Notes: Only the top five metropolitan statistical areas for each occupation are shown. The analysis was restricted to metros with more than 50 unweighted TPS potential workers in each occupation group. Within each occupation, we compute total hours as the sum of each eligible worker’s annual hours multiplied by their survey weight, where eligibility requires a positive number of weeks worked in the prior year and positive labor earnings; survey weights are adjusted using TPS raking weights to represent TPS workers.
To further characterize the types of jobs held by TPS workers, we construct two occupation-specific skill indices using O*NET data, following an approach developed by Peri and Sparber (2009). The first index captures manual skills, measuring the extent to which an occupation relies on physical abilities such as strength, coordination, and dexterity. The second index captures communication skills, reflecting the importance of oral and written comprehension and expression. Higher scores indicate greater reliance on each skill dimension. These measures allow us to assess whether TPS workers are concentrated in jobs that emphasize physical versus language-related skills, consistent with prior findings that foreign-born workers tend to specialize in more manual-intensive occupations while U.S.-born workers concentrate in more communication-intensive ones.
Our analysis shows that TPS workers are disproportionately employed in occupations requiring higher levels of manual skills and lower levels of communication skills relative to the overall labor force. These raw differences are shown in Figure 6.
Source: PWBM calculations based on 2022-2023 ACS and O*NET data.
Notes: Skill indices are constructed following Peri and Sparber (2009).
Adjusted analysis shows that TPS workers, on average, are employed in occupations ranked 5.0 percentile points higher in manual-skill intensity and 10.6 points lower in communication-skill intensity than U.S.-born workers. Compared with other foreign-born non-TPS individuals, TPS workers operate in roles that are 3.9 points more manual-intensive and 5.0 points less communication-intensive. These differences indicate that TPS workers are disproportionately concentrated in physically demanding jobs relative to both U.S.-born and other foreign-born counterparts with otherwise similar characteristics.
In 2023, TPS workers added an estimated $35.9 billion to U.S. GDP, with a particularly strong contributions in labor-intensive industries.9 We present our GDP contribution results in Figure 7.
In terms of industries, the largest individual contributions came from manufacturing ($5.5 billion), construction ($5.0 billion), retail trade ($3.9 billion), transportation and warehousing ($3.4 billion), and accommodation and food services ($3.2 billion). Significant contributions also emerged from administrative and waste management services ($2.4 billion), wholesale trade ($1.8 billion), and professional, scientific, and technical services ($1.8 billion). Smaller contributions were observed in finance and insurance, health care, other service sectors, and information services.
These findings show that TPS-authorized workers participate in and support economic activity across multiple sectors of the U.S. economy.
Source: PWBM calculations based on 2023 ACS, BLS, and BEA data.
Notes: Numbers are in 2024 dollars.
The contribution of TPS workers to U.S. GDP was highly concentrated in the states that host the largest TPS populations. Florida accounted for the largest share, with TPS workers in the state contributing an estimated $10.7 billion, reflecting both the scale and recent growth of its TPS population, particularly among Venezuelan beneficiaries. Texas ($4.3 billion), California ($3.6 billion), and New York ($2.8 billion) followed, together representing a majority of total TPS-related output nationwide. Other states with substantial contributions included Virginia ($1.9 billion), Maryland ($1.9 billion), and New Jersey ($1.2 billion), while Georgia ($0.9 billion), Massachusetts ($0.8 billion), and North Carolina ($0.8 billion) registered smaller but notable impacts.
TPS workers earn less than both U.S.-born individuals and other foreign-born individuals identified as non-TPS holders. Among full-time, year-round workers, the median annual income for TPS holders is $42,833—about two-thirds of the $62,169 earned by U.S.-born workers and also below the $55,567 earned by non-TPS foreign-born workers.
Source: PWBM calculations based on 2022-2023 ACS data.
Notes: Numbers are in 2024 dollars.
Unconditionally, TPS workers earn on average 32.2% less than U.S.-born workers and 26.8% less than non-TPS foreign-born workers. After adjusting for age, gender, Hispanic origin, education, years since migration, English proficiency, and state of residence, these earnings gaps narrow to 20.5% and 7.2%, respectively. This indicates that observable characteristics account for about 36% of the disparity with U.S.-born workers and 73% of the disparity with other foreign-born workers. Still, they do not explain the full gap, particularly in comparisons with U.S.-born workers.
Adding occupation fixed effects to the set of controls further reduces the earnings gap with U.S.-born workers to 14.9%, suggesting that about one-quarter of the adjusted difference stems from the types of occupations TPS workers hold. On average, TPS holders are employed in occupations that pay 11.9% less than those held by observationally similar U.S.-born workers.10 Yet even within the same occupations, TPS workers continue to earn less, pointing to disparities beyond occupational sorting—such as barriers to accessing higher-paying roles or employers within occupations.
By contrast, when compared with other foreign-born non-TPS workers, the occupation-adjusted earnings gap is just 2.4%, indicating that most of the raw difference between these two groups (about 91%) can be explained by demographics and occupational sorting. Figure 9 below shows a summary of this analysis.11
Source: PWBM calculations based on 2022-2023 ACS data.
Notes: Includes full-time, year-round workers. Controls include age, gender, Hispanic origin, education, years since migration, English proficiency, and state of residence.
Since TPS holders come from a specific set of designated countries, it is reasonable to ask whether the differences observed between them and other foreign-born groups reflect their temporary status or simply country-of-origin effects.
To address this, we restrict the analysis to individuals from TPS-designated countries and compare identified TPS workers, whose status is temporary, with individuals holding more permanent legal statuses. Unconditionally, TPS workers earn 20.5% less than legal workers from the same countries. After adjusting for age, education, gender, years since migration, English proficiency, and state of residence, the earnings gap narrows to 7.7%. Including occupation fixed effects further reduces the difference to 3.4%, suggesting that most of the observed gap can be explained by demographics and occupational sorting. Supporting this, we find that TPS workers are more likely to be employed in occupations requiring greater manual skills (3.5 percentile points higher) and fewer communication skills (6.2 points lower) than their legally resident counterparts from the same countries.
Taken together, these results indicate that the residual earnings gap documented in Figure 9 is unlikely to be driven by country-of-origin effects.
| TPS | Non-TPS: Definitely Legal |
Non-TPS: Noneligible Due to Late Arrival |
|
|---|---|---|---|
| Age | 44.0 | 47.4 | 35.4 |
| Age (standard deviation) | 12.6 | 16.5 | 12.1 |
| Female (%) | 47.2 | 52.1 | 47.9 |
| Education: Less than high school (%) | 38.9 | 22.1 | 51.4 |
| Education: High school (%) | 24.3 | 24.4 | 28.1 |
| Education: Some college (%) | 16.1 | 24.4 | 11.7 |
| Education: College (%) | 14.0 | 17.8 | 6.7 |
| Education: Advanced degree (%) | 6.7 | 11.3 | 2.1 |
| Years of residence in the U.S. | 17.7 | 24.5 | 9.3 |
| Years of residence (standard deviation) | 12.6 | 14.2 | 6.8 |
| Does not speak English or does not do it well (%) | 44.3 | 21.8 | 63.7 |
| Labor Force Participation Rate (%) | 79.4 | 70.3 | 73.4 |
| Full Time Share among Workers (%) | 75.9 | 72.7 | 67.5 |
| Median Earnings of Full Time Workers | 42,833 | 52,094 | 34,730 |
Source: PWBM calculations based on 2022-2023 ACS data.
Another question is whether the main benefit of TPS—work authorization—makes a measurable difference. To explore this, we examine individuals from TPS-designated countries who are not eligible for the program because they arrived in the United States after the required entry date (and do no hold any other legal status).
As expected, these non-eligible late arrivals are younger on average than identified TPS workers and have shorter durations of residence in the United States. Without controls, their labor force participation rate is six percentage points lower than that of the TPS group (73.4% vs. 79.4%). Unconditionally, they also earn 19% less than TPS workers. However, among full-time workers, their average earnings are estimated to be similar once demographics and occupation fixed effects are taken into account.
Eligibility for TPS depends on two factors: nationality and date of arrival in the United States. Once a country receives a designation, individuals from that country who were already in the U.S. and have continuously resided here since the specified date may apply. A TPS designation typically lasts 6 to 18 months but is often extended if the conditions that triggered it persist. In some cases, DHS may “redesignate” a country by updating the required arrival date, thereby expanding eligibility to more recent arrivals. Importantly, TPS does not allow individuals to enter the U.S. after the fact and retroactively claim protection—the arrival cutoff is fixed at the point of designation. This requirement distinguishes TPS from the refugee and asylum programs, which are designed for individuals unable or unwilling to return to their home country due to persecution based on race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. Refugee applicants must begin the process outside the U.S., while individuals who meet the definition but are already present in the U.S. or at a port of entry may apply for asylum. Both the refugee and asylum applications are evaluated on an individual basis; in contrast, TPS is a form of blanket humanitarian relief granted to nationals of a designated country due to generalized conditions. TPS also does not lead to Lawful Permanent Resident (LPR) status or any other immigration status, although some beneficiaries adjust through other immigration pathways and eventually obtain LPR status or citizenship.
For each country of origin, we used the following information: total TPS beneficiary counts through 2017; TPS counts excluding U.S. citizens (USCs) for 2018 and 2019, and TPS counts excluding both USCs and LPRs beginning in 2021.
Because USCs and LPRs already have the protections that TPS provides on a permanent basis, our analysis focused on TPS holders without either status. When detailed breakdowns were unavailable, we modeled transitions into LPR or USC status to estimate the “net” TPS population over time. In addition to the country-of-origin time series, we also constructed a state-level time series of TPS holders from USCIS data using the same method. Taken together, these data provide a comprehensive picture of the evolution of the TPS population.
Here we describe the “logical edits” and raking procedure used in the brief to identify TPS beneficiaries.
For each year of the 2018–2023 American Community Surveys (with 2023 being the most recent, although TPS counts extend through March 2025), we first remove individuals who are native-born or naturalized U.S. citizens. We then exclude those likely to have legal immigration status—for example, individuals working for the government, employed in occupations requiring special licenses, serving in the armed forces, or receiving public benefits such as Social Security or SNAP. Individuals with a parent or spouse in one of these categories are also excluded.
We apply the two TPS eligibility criteria to the remaining ACS sample: nationality and arrival date. Individuals from a designated country who arrived in the U.S. before the required cutoff are included in the potential TPS pool and assigned a non-zero probability of being TPS holders. Using a raking procedure, we then iteratively adjust these probabilities to align with USCIS counts by both country of origin and state of residence. This process continues until the probability-weighted sample converges to the targets on both dimensions.
The process also accounts for additional factors that may influence the likelihood of applying for TPS. Individuals who arrived in the United States long before their country’s designation are less likely to apply, as many may have already obtained another legal status or found alternative ways to remain in the country. Similarly, those who were very young or very old at the time of designation are less likely to apply, since the primary benefit of TPS—work authorization—mainly matters for prime-age adults. In addition, misunderstandings about the application process may lower take-up, such as the belief that only the head of household needs to apply.
It is important to note that individuals identified in the ACS through the described procedure are not guaranteed to be actual TPS beneficiaries. However, they meet the eligibility criteria and show no clear signs of holding another legal status, making them highly likely applicants. To validate our approach, we compared our identified sample with TPS counts by gender and age group for each designated country (available only for 2018 and, importantly, not used in the raking process) and found the distributions to be similar. Assuming that the ACS is representative of the residential population, this provides reasonable justification that our ACS-identified TPS sample offers a meaningful approximation of the actual TPS population.
| TPS | U.S. born | Foreign-born, non-TPS | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Age | 43.8 | 46.2 | 48.0 |
| Age (standard deviation) | 12.0 | 19.1 | 16.4 |
| Hispanic (%) | 79.3 | 12.7 | 45.9 |
| Education: Less than high school (%) | 41.4 | 11.6 | 25.8 |
| Education: High school (%) | 24.8 | 28.7 | 22.5 |
| Education: Some college (%) | 15.4 | 28.5 | 18.0 |
| Education: College (%) | 12.6 | 20.1 | 17.5 |
| Education: Advanced degree (%) | 5.8 | 11.1 | 16.2 |
| Years of residence in the U.S. | 18.5 | N/A | 24.8 |
| Years of residence (standard deviation) | 12.5 | N/A | 15.9 |
| Does not speak English or does not do it well (%) | 40.2 | 0.5 | 24.1 |
Source: PWBM calculations based on 2022-2023 ACS data.
| TPS | U.S. born | Foreign-born, non-TPS | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Age | 44.1 | 47.7 | 49.5 |
| Age (standard deviation) | 13.3 | 19.6 | 17.1 |
| Hispanic (%) | 76.1 | 12.3 | 42.3 |
| Education: Less than high school (%) | 36.2 | 9.8 | 23.9 |
| Education: High school (%) | 23.8 | 25.0 | 22.2 |
| Education: Some college (%) | 16.9 | 30.8 | 19.8 |
| Education: College (%) | 15.6 | 21.3 | 20.1 |
| Education: Advanced degree (%) | 7.6 | 13.1 | 13.9 |
| Years of residence in the U.S. | 16.9 | N/A | 25.4 |
| Years of residence (standard deviation) | 12.7 | N/A | 16.3 |
| Does not speak English or does not do it well (%) | 48.8 | 0.5 | 26.8 |
Source: PWBM calculations based on 2022-2023 ACS data.
Source: PWBM calculations based on 2022-2023 ACS data.
Notes: Includes full-time, year-round workers. Controls include age, Hispanic origin, education, years since migration, English proficiency, and state of residence.
Source: PWBM calculations based on 2022-2023 ACS data.
Notes: Includes full-time, year-round workers. Controls include age, Hispanic origin, education, years since migration, English proficiency, and state of residence.
This analysis was produced by Jesús Villero, Brendan Warshauer, and Youran Wu under the direction of Alex Arnon. Aidan O'Connell provided research assistance. Mariko Paulson prepared the brief for the website.
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These include Afghanistan, Cameroon, Nepal, Haiti, Nicaragua, Honduras, Venezuela, Syria, and South Sudan. ↩
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El Salvador was also first designated in the 1990s, but that designation was short-lived. The country did not receive a new designation until the early 2000s, setting it apart from the four countries listed here, whose 1990s designations have been continuous. ↩
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In 2020, the fifth-largest state was Virginia, which accounted for roughly 7% of TPS holders. Georgia, the current fifth-largest, represented less than 3% at the time and ranked tenth—behind the unchanged top four (Florida, Texas, New York, and California) as well as Virginia, Maryland, New Jersey, Massachusetts, and North Carolina. ↩
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This approach is an adaptation of the residual method and the probabilistic assignment method developed by Warren and Warren (2014) and Passel and Cohn (2018) for research on unauthorized immigrants. These methods are commonly used in both policy and academic studies. See, for example, here and here. ↩
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Our analysis is restricted to individuals aged 16 years and older in the civilian non-institutional population. The demographic and labor force participation (LFP) analysis uses all the information. The earnings analysis uses information from individuals with positive weeks worked in the previous year and positive earnings working in the private sector. Any other sample restriction is described when first introduced. ↩
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Tables A1 and A2 present these results disaggregated by gender. ↩
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All controls are included as fixed effects, except years of residence in the U.S., which is modeled as a third-degree polynomial (for native-born individuals, this variable is coded as zero). English skills are captured by an indicator equal to one for individuals who do not speak English or speak it ‘not well.’ ↩
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We code an individual as full-time worker if they report at least 40 weeks worked in the prior year and at least 35 usual weekly hours. ↩
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Our estimation approach measures the contribution of TPS workers to GDP by combining individual-level income with industry-specific labor shares, which we estimate using industry-level labor costs and GDP. For each major industry and year, we multiply each individual’s weighted wage by the inverse of the industry’s labor share. Summing these values across individuals yields an estimate of the total GDP contribution of TPS workers. We discuss the 2023 estimates in the text. Our estimated overall contribution for 2022 is $25.9 billion. ↩
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Average earnings by occupation are calculated using only native workers. ↩
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The corresponding figures by gender are shown in Figures A1 and A2. ↩
Country Start_Date End_Date Designation_ID_Detailed First_Des_Start_Date_For_Country Active_2025_03_31 Start_Date_plusbuffer Afghanistan 2022-05-21 00:00:00 2023-11-20 00:00:00 1 2022-05-21 00:00:00 FALSE 2022-06-10 00:00:00 Afghanistan 2023-11-21 00:00:00 2025-07-14 00:00:00 2 2022-05-21 00:00:00 TRUE 2023-12-11 00:00:00 Angola 2000-03-29 00:00:00 2003-03-29 00:00:00 1 2000-03-29 00:00:00 FALSE 2000-04-18 00:00:00 Bosnia-Herzegovina 1992-08-10 00:00:00 2001-02-10 00:00:00 1 1992-08-10 00:00:00 FALSE 1992-08-30 00:00:00 Burma 2021-05-26 00:00:00 2022-11-25 00:00:00 1 2021-05-26 00:00:00 FALSE 2021-06-15 00:00:00 Burma 2022-11-26 00:00:00 2024-05-25 00:00:00 2 2021-05-26 00:00:00 FALSE 2022-12-16 00:00:00 Burma 2024-05-26 00:00:00 2025-11-25 00:00:00 3 2021-05-26 00:00:00 TRUE 2024-06-15 00:00:00 Burundi 1997-11-04 00:00:00 2009-05-02 00:00:00 1 1997-11-04 00:00:00 FALSE 1997-11-24 00:00:00 Cameroon 2022-06-08 00:00:00 2023-12-07 00:00:00 1 2022-06-08 00:00:00 FALSE 2022-06-28 00:00:00 Cameroon 2023-12-08 00:00:00 2025-08-04 00:00:00 2 2022-06-08 00:00:00 TRUE 2023-12-28 00:00:00 El Salvador 1990-11-29 00:00:00 1992-06-30 00:00:00 1 1990-11-29 00:00:00 FALSE 1990-12-19 00:00:00 El Salvador 2001-03-09 00:00:00 2026-09-09 00:00:00 2 1990-11-29 00:00:00 TRUE 2001-03-29 00:00:00 Ethiopia 2022-12-13 00:00:00 2024-06-12 00:00:00 1 2022-12-13 00:00:00 FALSE 2023-01-02 00:00:00 Ethiopia 2024-06-13 00:00:00 2025-12-12 00:00:00 2 2022-12-13 00:00:00 TRUE 2024-07-03 00:00:00 Guinea 2014-11-21 00:00:00 2017-05-21 00:00:00 1 2014-11-21 00:00:00 FALSE 2014-12-11 00:00:00 Guinea-Bissau 1999-03-11 00:00:00 2000-09-10 00:00:00 1 1999-03-11 00:00:00 FALSE 1999-03-31 00:00:00 Haiti 2010-01-21 00:00:00 2011-07-22 00:00:00 1 2010-01-21 00:00:00 FALSE 2010-02-10 00:00:00 Haiti 2011-07-23 00:00:00 2021-08-03 00:00:00 2 2010-01-21 00:00:00 FALSE 2011-08-12 00:00:00 Haiti 2021-08-04 00:00:00 2023-02-03 00:00:00 3 2010-01-21 00:00:00 FALSE 2021-08-24 00:00:00 Haiti 2023-02-04 00:00:00 2024-08-03 00:00:00 4 2010-01-21 00:00:00 FALSE 2023-02-24 00:00:00 Haiti 2024-08-04 00:00:00 2026-02-03 00:00:00 5 2010-01-21 00:00:00 TRUE 2024-08-24 00:00:00 Honduras 1999-01-05 00:00:00 2025-09-08 00:00:00 1 1999-01-05 00:00:00 TRUE 1999-01-25 00:00:00 Kosovo 1998-06-09 00:00:00 2000-12-08 00:00:00 1 1998-06-09 00:00:00 FALSE 1998-06-29 00:00:00 Kuwait 1991-03-27 00:00:00 1992-03-27 00:00:00 1 1991-03-27 00:00:00 FALSE 1991-04-16 00:00:00 Lebanon 1991-03-27 00:00:00 1993-04-09 00:00:00 1 1991-03-27 00:00:00 FALSE 1991-04-16 00:00:00 Lebanon 2024-11-27 00:00:00 2026-05-27 00:00:00 2 1991-03-27 00:00:00 TRUE 2024-12-17 00:00:00 Liberia 1991-03-27 00:00:00 1999-09-28 00:00:00 1 1991-03-27 00:00:00 FALSE 1991-04-16 00:00:00 Liberia 2002-10-01 00:00:00 2007-10-01 00:00:00 2 1991-03-27 00:00:00 FALSE 2002-10-21 00:00:00 Liberia 2014-11-21 00:00:00 2017-05-21 00:00:00 3 1991-03-27 00:00:00 FALSE 2014-12-11 00:00:00 Montserrat 1997-08-27 00:00:00 2004-08-27 00:00:00 1 1997-08-27 00:00:00 FALSE 1997-09-16 00:00:00 Nepal 2015-06-24 00:00:00 2025-08-20 00:00:00 1 2015-06-24 00:00:00 TRUE 2015-07-14 00:00:00 Nicaragua 1999-01-05 00:00:00 2025-09-08 00:00:00 1 1999-01-05 00:00:00 TRUE 1999-01-25 00:00:00 Rwanda 1994-06-07 00:00:00 1997-12-06 00:00:00 1 1994-06-07 00:00:00 FALSE 1994-06-27 00:00:00 Sierra Leone 1997-11-04 00:00:00 2004-05-03 00:00:00 1 1997-11-04 00:00:00 FALSE 1997-11-24 00:00:00 Sierra Leone 2014-11-24 00:00:00 2017-05-21 00:00:00 2 1997-11-04 00:00:00 FALSE 2014-12-14 00:00:00 Somalia 1991-09-16 00:00:00 2001-09-03 00:00:00 1 1991-09-16 00:00:00 FALSE 1991-10-06 00:00:00 Somalia 2001-09-04 00:00:00 2012-09-17 00:00:00 2 1991-09-16 00:00:00 FALSE 2001-09-24 00:00:00 Somalia 2012-09-18 00:00:00 2021-09-17 00:00:00 3 1991-09-16 00:00:00 FALSE 2012-10-08 00:00:00 Somalia 2021-09-18 00:00:00 2023-03-17 00:00:00 4 1991-09-16 00:00:00 FALSE 2021-10-08 00:00:00 Somalia 2023-03-18 00:00:00 2024-09-17 00:00:00 5 1991-09-16 00:00:00 FALSE 2023-04-07 00:00:00 Somalia 2024-09-18 00:00:00 2026-03-17 00:00:00 6 1991-09-16 00:00:00 TRUE 2024-10-08 00:00:00 South Sudan 2011-11-03 00:00:00 2014-11-02 00:00:00 1 2011-11-03 00:00:00 FALSE 2011-11-23 00:00:00 South Sudan 2014-11-03 00:00:00 2016-05-02 00:00:00 2 2011-11-03 00:00:00 FALSE 2014-11-23 00:00:00 South Sudan 2016-05-03 00:00:00 2022-05-02 00:00:00 3 2011-11-03 00:00:00 FALSE 2016-05-23 00:00:00 South Sudan 2022-05-03 00:00:00 2023-11-03 00:00:00 4 2011-11-03 00:00:00 FALSE 2022-05-23 00:00:00 South Sudan 2023-11-04 00:00:00 2025-11-03 00:00:00 5 2011-11-03 00:00:00 TRUE 2023-11-24 00:00:00 Sudan 1997-11-04 00:00:00 1999-11-08 00:00:00 1 1997-11-04 00:00:00 FALSE 1997-11-24 00:00:00 Sudan 1999-11-09 00:00:00 2004-11-01 00:00:00 2 1997-11-04 00:00:00 FALSE 1999-11-29 00:00:00 Sudan 2004-11-02 00:00:00 2013-05-02 00:00:00 3 1997-11-04 00:00:00 FALSE 2004-11-22 00:00:00 Sudan 2013-05-03 00:00:00 2022-04-18 00:00:00 4 1997-11-04 00:00:00 FALSE 2013-05-23 00:00:00 Sudan 2022-04-19 00:00:00 2023-10-19 00:00:00 5 1997-11-04 00:00:00 FALSE 2022-05-09 00:00:00 Sudan 2023-10-20 00:00:00 2026-10-19 00:00:00 6 1997-11-04 00:00:00 TRUE 2023-11-09 00:00:00 Syria 2012-03-29 00:00:00 2016-07-31 00:00:00 1 2012-03-29 00:00:00 FALSE 2012-04-18 00:00:00 Syria 2016-08-01 00:00:00 2021-03-31 00:00:00 2 2012-03-29 00:00:00 FALSE 2016-08-21 00:00:00 Syria 2021-04-01 00:00:00 2022-09-30 00:00:00 3 2012-03-29 00:00:00 FALSE 2021-04-21 00:00:00 Syria 2022-10-01 00:00:00 2024-03-31 00:00:00 4 2012-03-29 00:00:00 FALSE 2022-10-21 00:00:00 Syria 2024-04-01 00:00:00 2025-09-30 00:00:00 5 2012-03-29 00:00:00 TRUE 2024-04-21 00:00:00 Ukraine 2022-04-19 00:00:00 2023-10-19 00:00:00 1 2022-04-19 00:00:00 FALSE 2022-05-09 00:00:00 Ukraine 2023-10-20 00:00:00 2026-10-19 00:00:00 2 2022-04-19 00:00:00 TRUE 2023-11-09 00:00:00 Venezuela 2021-03-09 00:00:00 2023-10-02 00:00:00 1 2021-03-09 00:00:00 FALSE 2021-03-29 00:00:00 Venezuela 2023-10-03 00:00:00 2025-04-02 00:00:00 2 2021-03-09 00:00:00 TRUE 2023-10-23 00:00:00 Venezuela 2021-03-09 00:00:00 2025-09-10 00:00:00 3 2021-03-09 00:00:00 TRUE 2021-03-29 00:00:00 Yemen 2015-09-03 00:00:00 2017-03-03 00:00:00 1 2015-09-03 00:00:00 FALSE 2015-09-23 00:00:00 Yemen 2017-03-04 00:00:00 2021-09-03 00:00:00 2 2015-09-03 00:00:00 FALSE 2017-03-24 00:00:00 Yemen 2021-09-04 00:00:00 2023-03-03 00:00:00 3 2015-09-03 00:00:00 FALSE 2021-09-24 00:00:00 Yemen 2023-03-04 00:00:00 2024-09-03 00:00:00 4 2015-09-03 00:00:00 FALSE 2023-03-24 00:00:00 Yemen 2024-09-04 00:00:00 2026-03-03 00:00:00 5 2015-09-03 00:00:00 TRUE 2024-09-24 00:00:00
Date Country TPS holders (excluding USCs and LPRs) 1999-12-31 El Salvador 0 1999-12-31 Honduras 21417 1999-12-31 Haiti 0 1999-12-31 Venezuela 0 1999-12-31 Ukraine 0 1999-12-31 Other 2126 2000-03-31 El Salvador 0 2000-03-31 Honduras 36153 2000-03-31 Haiti 0 2000-03-31 Venezuela 0 2000-03-31 Ukraine 0 2000-03-31 Other 2989 2000-06-30 El Salvador 0 2000-06-30 Honduras 50889 2000-06-30 Haiti 0 2000-06-30 Venezuela 0 2000-06-30 Ukraine 0 2000-06-30 Other 3863 2000-09-30 El Salvador 0 2000-09-30 Honduras 65787 2000-09-30 Haiti 0 2000-09-30 Venezuela 0 2000-09-30 Ukraine 0 2000-09-30 Other 4746 2000-12-31 El Salvador 0 2000-12-31 Honduras 66674 2000-12-31 Haiti 0 2000-12-31 Venezuela 0 2000-12-31 Ukraine 0 2000-12-31 Other 4812 2001-03-31 El Salvador 2340 2001-03-31 Honduras 67540 2001-03-31 Haiti 0 2001-03-31 Venezuela 0 2001-03-31 Ukraine 0 2001-03-31 Other 4876 2001-06-30 El Salvador 12013 2001-06-30 Honduras 68414 2001-06-30 Haiti 0 2001-06-30 Venezuela 0 2001-06-30 Ukraine 0 2001-06-30 Other 4941 2001-09-30 El Salvador 21787 2001-09-30 Honduras 69296 2001-09-30 Haiti 0 2001-09-30 Venezuela 0 2001-09-30 Ukraine 0 2001-09-30 Other 5006 2001-12-31 El Salvador 41025 2001-12-31 Honduras 70032 2001-12-31 Haiti 0 2001-12-31 Venezuela 0 2001-12-31 Ukraine 0 2001-12-31 Other 5075 2002-03-31 El Salvador 59845 2002-03-31 Honduras 70749 2002-03-31 Haiti 0 2002-03-31 Venezuela 0 2002-03-31 Ukraine 0 2002-03-31 Other 5143 2002-06-30 El Salvador 78872 2002-06-30 Honduras 71471 2002-06-30 Haiti 0 2002-06-30 Venezuela 0 2002-06-30 Ukraine 0 2002-06-30 Other 5211 2002-09-30 El Salvador 98108 2002-09-30 Honduras 72200 2002-09-30 Haiti 0 2002-09-30 Venezuela 0 2002-09-30 Ukraine 0 2002-09-30 Other 5280 2002-12-31 El Salvador 115233 2002-12-31 Honduras 72697 2002-12-31 Haiti 0 2002-12-31 Venezuela 0 2002-12-31 Ukraine 0 2002-12-31 Other 5688 2003-03-31 El Salvador 131983 2003-03-31 Honduras 73177 2003-03-31 Haiti 0 2003-03-31 Venezuela 0 2003-03-31 Ukraine 0 2003-03-31 Other 6134 2003-06-30 El Salvador 148917 2003-06-30 Honduras 73660 2003-06-30 Haiti 0 2003-06-30 Venezuela 0 2003-06-30 Ukraine 0 2003-06-30 Other 6583 2003-09-30 El Salvador 166035 2003-09-30 Honduras 74144 2003-09-30 Haiti 0 2003-09-30 Venezuela 0 2003-09-30 Ukraine 0 2003-09-30 Other 7037 2003-12-31 El Salvador 180602 2003-12-31 Honduras 74629 2003-12-31 Haiti 0 2003-12-31 Venezuela 0 2003-12-31 Ukraine 0 2003-12-31 Other 6091 2004-03-31 El Salvador 195008 2004-03-31 Honduras 75107 2004-03-31 Haiti 0 2004-03-31 Venezuela 0 2004-03-31 Ukraine 0 2004-03-31 Other 6206 2004-06-30 El Salvador 209409 2004-06-30 Honduras 75580 2004-06-30 Haiti 0 2004-06-30 Venezuela 0 2004-06-30 Ukraine 0 2004-06-30 Other 6320 2004-09-30 El Salvador 223966 2004-09-30 Honduras 76054 2004-09-30 Haiti 0 2004-09-30 Venezuela 0 2004-09-30 Ukraine 0 2004-09-30 Other 6435 2004-12-31 El Salvador 228131 2004-12-31 Honduras 77321 2004-12-31 Haiti 0 2004-12-31 Venezuela 0 2004-12-31 Ukraine 0 2004-12-31 Other 6524 2005-03-31 El Salvador 232202 2005-03-31 Honduras 78558 2005-03-31 Haiti 0 2005-03-31 Venezuela 0 2005-03-31 Ukraine 0 2005-03-31 Other 6612 2005-06-30 El Salvador 236315 2005-06-30 Honduras 79806 2005-06-30 Haiti 0 2005-06-30 Venezuela 0 2005-06-30 Ukraine 0 2005-06-30 Other 6700 2005-09-30 El Salvador 240472 2005-09-30 Honduras 81066 2005-09-30 Haiti 0 2005-09-30 Venezuela 0 2005-09-30 Ukraine 0 2005-09-30 Other 6790 2005-12-31 El Salvador 242624 2005-12-31 Honduras 81273 2005-12-31 Haiti 0 2005-12-31 Venezuela 0 2005-12-31 Ukraine 0 2005-12-31 Other 7540 2006-03-31 El Salvador 244725 2006-03-31 Honduras 81473 2006-03-31 Haiti 0 2006-03-31 Venezuela 0 2006-03-31 Ukraine 0 2006-03-31 Other 8271 2006-06-30 El Salvador 246844 2006-06-30 Honduras 81672 2006-06-30 Haiti 0 2006-06-30 Venezuela 0 2006-06-30 Ukraine 0 2006-06-30 Other 9007 2006-09-30 El Salvador 248983 2006-09-30 Honduras 81872 2006-09-30 Haiti 0 2006-09-30 Venezuela 0 2006-09-30 Ukraine 0 2006-09-30 Other 9748 2006-12-31 El Salvador 249544 2006-12-31 Honduras 81685 2006-12-31 Haiti 0 2006-12-31 Venezuela 0 2006-12-31 Ukraine 0 2006-12-31 Other 9735 2007-03-31 El Salvador 250081 2007-03-31 Honduras 81494 2007-03-31 Haiti 0 2007-03-31 Venezuela 0 2007-03-31 Ukraine 0 2007-03-31 Other 9720 2007-06-30 El Salvador 250624 2007-06-30 Honduras 81301 2007-06-30 Haiti 0 2007-06-30 Venezuela 0 2007-06-30 Ukraine 0 2007-06-30 Other 9705 2007-09-30 El Salvador 251168 2007-09-30 Honduras 81103 2007-09-30 Haiti 0 2007-09-30 Venezuela 0 2007-09-30 Ukraine 0 2007-09-30 Other 9687 2007-12-31 El Salvador 251415 2007-12-31 Honduras 80794 2007-12-31 Haiti 0 2007-12-31 Venezuela 0 2007-12-31 Ukraine 0 2007-12-31 Other 5295 2008-03-31 El Salvador 251663 2008-03-31 Honduras 80490 2008-03-31 Haiti 0 2008-03-31 Venezuela 0 2008-03-31 Ukraine 0 2008-03-31 Other 5275 2008-06-30 El Salvador 251896 2008-06-30 Honduras 80179 2008-06-30 Haiti 0 2008-06-30 Venezuela 0 2008-06-30 Ukraine 0 2008-06-30 Other 5255 2008-09-30 El Salvador 252127 2008-09-30 Honduras 79863 2008-09-30 Haiti 0 2008-09-30 Venezuela 0 2008-09-30 Ukraine 0 2008-09-30 Other 5234 2008-12-31 El Salvador 251687 2008-12-31 Honduras 79596 2008-12-31 Haiti 0 2008-12-31 Venezuela 0 2008-12-31 Ukraine 0 2008-12-31 Other 5187 2009-03-31 El Salvador 251254 2009-03-31 Honduras 79334 2009-03-31 Haiti 0 2009-03-31 Venezuela 0 2009-03-31 Ukraine 0 2009-03-31 Other 5182 2009-06-30 El Salvador 250812 2009-06-30 Honduras 79068 2009-06-30 Haiti 0 2009-06-30 Venezuela 0 2009-06-30 Ukraine 0 2009-06-30 Other 5177 2009-09-30 El Salvador 250362 2009-09-30 Honduras 78797 2009-09-30 Haiti 0 2009-09-30 Venezuela 0 2009-09-30 Ukraine 0 2009-09-30 Other 5172 2009-12-31 El Salvador 249693 2009-12-31 Honduras 78588 2009-12-31 Haiti 0 2009-12-31 Venezuela 0 2009-12-31 Ukraine 0 2009-12-31 Other 5155 2010-03-31 El Salvador 249035 2010-03-31 Honduras 78381 2010-03-31 Haiti 11429 2010-03-31 Venezuela 0 2010-03-31 Ukraine 0 2010-03-31 Other 5138 2010-06-30 El Salvador 248366 2010-06-30 Honduras 78169 2010-06-30 Haiti 26484 2010-06-30 Venezuela 0 2010-06-30 Ukraine 0 2010-06-30 Other 5121 2010-09-30 El Salvador 247686 2010-09-30 Honduras 77954 2010-09-30 Haiti 41713 2010-09-30 Venezuela 0 2010-09-30 Ukraine 0 2010-09-30 Other 5104 2010-12-31 El Salvador 246698 2010-12-31 Honduras 77533 2010-12-31 Haiti 43181 2010-12-31 Venezuela 0 2010-12-31 Ukraine 0 2010-12-31 Other 5083 2011-03-31 El Salvador 245716 2011-03-31 Honduras 77113 2011-03-31 Haiti 44611 2011-03-31 Venezuela 0 2011-03-31 Ukraine 0 2011-03-31 Other 5062 2011-06-30 El Salvador 244732 2011-06-30 Honduras 76692 2011-06-30 Haiti 46057 2011-06-30 Venezuela 0 2011-06-30 Ukraine 0 2011-06-30 Other 5041 2011-09-30 El Salvador 243735 2011-09-30 Honduras 76265 2011-09-30 Haiti 47516 2011-09-30 Venezuela 0 2011-09-30 Ukraine 0 2011-09-30 Other 5020 2011-12-31 El Salvador 242914 2011-12-31 Honduras 75958 2011-12-31 Haiti 49667 2011-12-31 Venezuela 0 2011-12-31 Ukraine 0 2011-12-31 Other 5002 2012-03-31 El Salvador 242114 2012-03-31 Honduras 75659 2012-03-31 Haiti 51796 2012-03-31 Venezuela 0 2012-03-31 Ukraine 0 2012-03-31 Other 4986 2012-06-30 El Salvador 241298 2012-06-30 Honduras 75352 2012-06-30 Haiti 53923 2012-06-30 Venezuela 0 2012-06-30 Ukraine 0 2012-06-30 Other 5037 2012-09-30 El Salvador 240471 2012-09-30 Honduras 75042 2012-09-30 Haiti 56074 2012-09-30 Venezuela 0 2012-09-30 Ukraine 0 2012-09-30 Other 5089 2012-12-31 El Salvador 239959 2012-12-31 Honduras 74875 2012-12-31 Haiti 55851 2012-12-31 Venezuela 0 2012-12-31 Ukraine 0 2012-12-31 Other 5546 2013-03-31 El Salvador 239458 2013-03-31 Honduras 74712 2013-03-31 Haiti 55634 2013-03-31 Venezuela 0 2013-03-31 Ukraine 0 2013-03-31 Other 5993 2013-06-30 El Salvador 238951 2013-06-30 Honduras 74546 2013-06-30 Haiti 55414 2013-06-30 Venezuela 0 2013-06-30 Ukraine 0 2013-06-30 Other 6446 2013-09-30 El Salvador 238438 2013-09-30 Honduras 74379 2013-09-30 Haiti 55194 2013-09-30 Venezuela 0 2013-09-30 Ukraine 0 2013-09-30 Other 6903 2013-12-31 El Salvador 237437 2013-12-31 Honduras 74071 2013-12-31 Haiti 54889 2013-12-31 Venezuela 0 2013-12-31 Ukraine 0 2013-12-31 Other 7537 2014-03-31 El Salvador 236431 2014-03-31 Honduras 73750 2014-03-31 Haiti 54576 2014-03-31 Venezuela 0 2014-03-31 Ukraine 0 2014-03-31 Other 8152 2014-06-30 El Salvador 235389 2014-06-30 Honduras 73404 2014-06-30 Haiti 54246 2014-06-30 Venezuela 0 2014-06-30 Ukraine 0 2014-06-30 Other 8768 2014-09-30 El Salvador 234307 2014-09-30 Honduras 73032 2014-09-30 Haiti 53898 2014-09-30 Venezuela 0 2014-09-30 Ukraine 0 2014-09-30 Other 9385 2014-12-31 El Salvador 233318 2014-12-31 Honduras 72688 2014-12-31 Haiti 53448 2014-12-31 Venezuela 0 2014-12-31 Ukraine 0 2014-12-31 Other 9806 2015-03-31 El Salvador 232351 2015-03-31 Honduras 72345 2015-03-31 Haiti 53002 2015-03-31 Venezuela 0 2015-03-31 Ukraine 0 2015-03-31 Other 10711 2015-06-30 El Salvador 231374 2015-06-30 Honduras 71992 2015-06-30 Haiti 52545 2015-06-30 Venezuela 0 2015-06-30 Ukraine 0 2015-06-30 Other 11687 2015-09-30 El Salvador 230387 2015-09-30 Honduras 71629 2015-09-30 Haiti 52078 2015-09-30 Venezuela 0 2015-09-30 Ukraine 0 2015-09-30 Other 13675 2015-12-31 El Salvador 229014 2015-12-31 Honduras 71185 2015-12-31 Haiti 51607 2015-12-31 Venezuela 0 2015-12-31 Ukraine 0 2015-12-31 Other 17278 2016-03-31 El Salvador 227674 2016-03-31 Honduras 70762 2016-03-31 Haiti 51159 2016-03-31 Venezuela 0 2016-03-31 Ukraine 0 2016-03-31 Other 20823 2016-06-30 El Salvador 226353 2016-06-30 Honduras 70357 2016-06-30 Haiti 50729 2016-06-30 Venezuela 0 2016-06-30 Ukraine 0 2016-06-30 Other 24359 2016-09-30 El Salvador 225034 2016-09-30 Honduras 69965 2016-09-30 Haiti 50312 2016-09-30 Venezuela 0 2016-09-30 Ukraine 0 2016-09-30 Other 27948 2016-12-31 El Salvador 223805 2016-12-31 Honduras 69557 2016-12-31 Haiti 49864 2016-12-31 Venezuela 0 2016-12-31 Ukraine 0 2016-12-31 Other 24200 2017-03-31 El Salvador 222607 2017-03-31 Honduras 69168 2017-03-31 Haiti 49414 2017-03-31 Venezuela 0 2017-03-31 Ukraine 0 2017-03-31 Other 24991 2017-06-30 El Salvador 221398 2017-06-30 Honduras 68785 2017-06-30 Haiti 48948 2017-06-30 Venezuela 0 2017-06-30 Ukraine 0 2017-06-30 Other 25784 2017-09-30 El Salvador 220180 2017-09-30 Honduras 68410 2017-09-30 Haiti 48466 2017-09-30 Venezuela 0 2017-09-30 Ukraine 0 2017-09-30 Other 26579 2017-12-31 El Salvador 219535 2017-12-31 Honduras 68293 2017-12-31 Haiti 47969 2017-12-31 Venezuela 0 2017-12-31 Ukraine 0 2017-12-31 Other 26661 2018-03-31 El Salvador 218850 2018-03-31 Honduras 68164 2018-03-31 Haiti 47493 2018-03-31 Venezuela 0 2018-03-31 Ukraine 0 2018-03-31 Other 26744 2018-06-30 El Salvador 218225 2018-06-30 Honduras 68028 2018-06-30 Haiti 47004 2018-06-30 Venezuela 0 2018-06-30 Ukraine 0 2018-06-30 Other 26818 2018-09-30 El Salvador 218340 2018-09-30 Honduras 67935 2018-09-30 Haiti 46406 2018-09-30 Venezuela 0 2018-09-30 Ukraine 0 2018-09-30 Other 26829 2018-12-31 El Salvador 217433 2018-12-31 Honduras 67758 2018-12-31 Haiti 45632 2018-12-31 Venezuela 0 2018-12-31 Ukraine 0 2018-12-31 Other 26785 2019-03-31 El Salvador 216036 2019-03-31 Honduras 67511 2019-03-31 Haiti 44923 2019-03-31 Venezuela 0 2019-03-31 Ukraine 0 2019-03-31 Other 26674 2019-06-30 El Salvador 214640 2019-06-30 Honduras 67263 2019-06-30 Haiti 44208 2019-06-30 Venezuela 0 2019-06-30 Ukraine 0 2019-06-30 Other 26558 2019-09-30 El Salvador 213245 2019-09-30 Honduras 67015 2019-09-30 Haiti 43489 2019-09-30 Venezuela 0 2019-09-30 Ukraine 0 2019-09-30 Other 26438 2019-12-31 El Salvador 211749 2019-12-31 Honduras 66575 2019-12-31 Haiti 42847 2019-12-31 Venezuela 0 2019-12-31 Ukraine 0 2019-12-31 Other 26019 2020-03-31 El Salvador 208967 2020-03-31 Honduras 65276 2020-03-31 Haiti 42433 2020-03-31 Venezuela 0 2020-03-31 Ukraine 0 2020-03-31 Other 24701 2020-06-30 El Salvador 206185 2020-06-30 Honduras 63977 2020-06-30 Haiti 42020 2020-06-30 Venezuela 0 2020-06-30 Ukraine 0 2020-06-30 Other 23383 2020-09-30 El Salvador 203373 2020-09-30 Honduras 62663 2020-09-30 Haiti 41602 2020-09-30 Venezuela 0 2020-09-30 Ukraine 0 2020-09-30 Other 22051 2020-12-31 El Salvador 200560 2020-12-31 Honduras 61350 2020-12-31 Haiti 41184 2020-12-31 Venezuela 0 2020-12-31 Ukraine 0 2020-12-31 Other 20719 2021-03-31 El Salvador 198159 2021-03-31 Honduras 60250 2021-03-31 Haiti 40984 2021-03-31 Venezuela 2584 2021-03-31 Ukraine 0 2021-03-31 Other 19647 2021-06-30 El Salvador 196966 2021-06-30 Honduras 59791 2021-06-30 Haiti 41523 2021-06-30 Venezuela 13271 2021-06-30 Ukraine 0 2021-06-30 Other 19433 2021-09-30 El Salvador 195761 2021-09-30 Honduras 59327 2021-09-30 Haiti 42067 2021-09-30 Venezuela 24076 2021-09-30 Ukraine 0 2021-09-30 Other 19296 2021-12-31 El Salvador 194556 2021-12-31 Honduras 58863 2021-12-31 Haiti 42612 2021-12-31 Venezuela 34881 2021-12-31 Ukraine 0 2021-12-31 Other 19160 2022-03-31 El Salvador 193440 2022-03-31 Honduras 58459 2022-03-31 Haiti 50085 2022-03-31 Venezuela 61762 2022-03-31 Ukraine 0 2022-03-31 Other 19183 2022-06-30 El Salvador 192380 2022-06-30 Honduras 58108 2022-06-30 Haiti 65310 2022-06-30 Venezuela 106969 2022-06-30 Ukraine 3394 2022-06-30 Other 19479 2022-09-30 El Salvador 191308 2022-09-30 Honduras 57752 2022-09-30 Haiti 80703 2022-09-30 Venezuela 152673 2022-09-30 Ukraine 7730 2022-09-30 Other 20082 2022-12-31 El Salvador 190063 2022-12-31 Honduras 57319 2022-12-31 Haiti 98102 2022-12-31 Venezuela 182930 2022-12-31 Ukraine 14380 2022-12-31 Other 21534 2023-03-31 El Salvador 188725 2023-03-31 Honduras 56840 2023-03-31 Haiti 116505 2023-03-31 Venezuela 201895 2023-03-31 Ukraine 22480 2023-03-31 Other 24045 2023-06-30 El Salvador 186393 2023-06-30 Honduras 56105 2023-06-30 Haiti 140240 2023-06-30 Venezuela 220434 2023-06-30 Ukraine 24338 2023-06-30 Other 26216 2023-09-30 El Salvador 184035 2023-09-30 Honduras 55360 2023-09-30 Haiti 164235 2023-09-30 Venezuela 239175 2023-09-30 Ukraine 26215 2023-09-30 Other 28410 2023-12-31 El Salvador 182195 2023-12-31 Honduras 54823 2023-12-31 Haiti 182218 2023-12-31 Venezuela 292043 2023-12-31 Ukraine 38276 2023-12-31 Other 31505 2024-03-31 El Salvador 180375 2024-03-31 Honduras 54290 2024-03-31 Haiti 200005 2024-03-31 Venezuela 344335 2024-03-31 Ukraine 50205 2024-03-31 Other 34565 2024-06-30 El Salvador 177300 2024-06-30 Honduras 53443 2024-06-30 Haiti 230232 2024-06-30 Venezuela 424428 2024-06-30 Ukraine 56779 2024-06-30 Other 36629 2024-09-30 El Salvador 174190 2024-09-30 Honduras 52585 2024-09-30 Haiti 260790 2024-09-30 Venezuela 505400 2024-09-30 Ukraine 63425 2024-09-30 Other 38715 2024-12-31 El Salvador 172136 2024-12-31 Honduras 51898 2024-12-31 Haiti 296147 2024-12-31 Venezuela 555755 2024-12-31 Ukraine 82495 2024-12-31 Other 39024 2025-03-31 El Salvador 170125 2025-03-31 Honduras 51225 2025-03-31 Haiti 330735 2025-03-31 Venezuela 605015 2025-03-31 Ukraine 101150 2025-03-31 Other 39390
StateName StateFIPS Share_TPS_ForeignBorn_LF (%) Florida 12 3.79 Maryland 24 3.46 Indiana 18 2.72 Virginia 51 2.61 Tennessee 47 2.26 North Carolina 37 2.05 Utah 49 1.92 Texas 48 1.47 Georgia 13 1.34 New York 36 1.22 Nevada 32 1.07 Massachusetts 25 1.05 New Jersey 34 1.01 Ohio 39 0.82 Colorado 8 0.71 California 6 0.68 Connecticut 9 0.59 Illinois 17 0.59 Pennsylvania 42 0.46 Michigan 26 0.37 Washington 53 0.32
OccGroup Share (%) - TPS Share (%) - U.S. born Share (%) - Foreign-born, non-TPS Construction 14.57833545 4.502856605 8.713159313 Building and Grounds Cleaning and Maintenance 14.45792817 2.6831137 6.547458518 Transportation and Material Moving 14.37453979 7.026882925 8.318436298 Production 9.399451447 5.701585352 6.965716591 Office and Administrative Support 8.322155852 12.12318361 7.888269316 Food Preparation and Serving 8.181909816 5.90527798 6.249462113 Sales and Related 6.684154611 11.24463586 7.665422703 Management in Business, Science, and Arts 6.375358704 12.86358095 10.31601799 Installation, Maintenance, and Repair 3.794434089 3.257517775 2.677887014 Personal Care and Service 3.045973603 3.493338382 4.342932746 Computer and Mathematical 1.69899278 3.369207322 5.689818394 Business Operations Specialists 1.411023742 3.524349482 2.415638152 Arts, Design, Entertainment, Sports, and Media 1.374167868 2.576031269 1.77560227 Education, Training, and Library 1.302289647 2.952652197 2.306627149 Farming, Fisheries, and Forestry 0.840064028 0.475170518 1.524527005 Protective Service 0.774676487 0.960854792 0.597836541 Architecture and Engineering 0.727389173 1.80224289 2.295246795 Financial Specialists 0.652759859 2.283862447 1.952797071 Healthcare Support 0.546807687 2.411800636 2.987626153 Life, Physical, and Social Science 0.446594375 0.822397972 1.142890298 Community and Social Services 0.376771412 1.527400036 0.885580542 Healthcare Practitioners and Technicians 0.359760218 6.72841254 5.709979877 Technicians 0.235250437 0.414686548 0.351283162 Extraction 0.039210756 0.132830895 0.068756418 Legal 0 1.216127324 0.611027573
MetroName TPS_Hours_Share (%) Miami-Fort Lauderdale-West Palm Beach, FL 3.612589426 Washington-Arlington-Alexandria, DC-VA-MD-WV 3.584447051 Houston-Pasadena-The Woodlands, TX 1.635808649 New York-Newark-Jersey City, NY-NJ 1.367470774 Los Angeles-Long Beach-Anaheim, CA 1.058987862
MetroName TPS_Hours_Share (%) Washington-Arlington-Alexandria, DC-VA-MD-WV 8.267874713 Miami-Fort Lauderdale-West Palm Beach, FL 4.023847213 Houston-Pasadena-The Woodlands, TX 1.489376001 New York-Newark-Jersey City, NY-NJ 1.160857342 Los Angeles-Long Beach-Anaheim, CA 1.137665919
MetroName TPS_Hours_Share (%) Washington-Arlington-Alexandria, DC-VA-MD-WV 9.329833975 Miami-Fort Lauderdale-West Palm Beach, FL 5.440819584 Houston-Pasadena-The Woodlands, TX 4.022512094 New York-Newark-Jersey City, NY-NJ 2.604603868 Los Angeles-Long Beach-Anaheim, CA 2.143066508
Group ManualSkillsIndex CommunicationSkillsIndex TPS 62.05 29.66 U.S. born 45.54 51.57 Foreign-born, non-TPS 50.71 43.71
industry estimated_gdp_contribution_billions Retail Trade 3.95 Finance and Insurance 1.24 Accommodation and Food Services 3.23 Health Care and Social Assistance 1.21 Construction 4.95 Manufacturing 5.48 Transportation and Warehousing 3.44 Real Estate and Rental and Leasing 0.81 Other Services Except Public Administration 1.75 Mining 0.33 Wholesale Trade 1.8 Administrative and Waste Management Services 2.41 Professional Scientific and Technical Services 1.8 Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing and Hunting 0.42 Utilities 0.62 Educational Services 0.46 Information 1.41 Arts, Entertainment, and Recreation 0.6 Management of Companies and Enterprises 0.01
Median earnings of full-time, year-round workers by group TPS 42833 U.S. born 62169 Foreign-born, non-TPS 55567
. Unadjusted CI95lo CI95up Controls CI95lo CI95up Controls + Occupation FE CI95lo CI95up U.S. born -32.247 -33.671 -30.822 -20.511 -22.417 -18.605 -14.881 -16.792 -12.969 Foreign-born -26.773 -28.233 -25.313 -7.163 -8.835 -5.491 -2.405 -4.08 -0.73 Legal from same TPS country -20.489 -23.255 -17.722 -7.743 -9.858 -5.628 -3.39 -5.472 -1.308
. Unadjusted CI95lo CI95up Controls CI95lo CI95up Controls + Occupation FE CI95lo CI95up U.S. born -32.496 -34.339 -30.653 -18.911 -21.469 -16.352 -14.529 -17.077 -11.98 Foreign-born -24.981 -26.868 -23.094 -7.074 -9.325 -4.823 -2.942 -5.191 -0.694 Legal from same TPS country -18.922 -22.538 -15.305 -7.07 -10.017 -4.123 -3.319 -6.211 -0.426
. Unadjusted CI95lo CI95up Controls CI95lo CI95up Controls + Occupation FE CI95lo CI95up U.S. born -34.539 -36.509 -32.568 -23.01 -25.781 -20.238 -15.074 -17.869 -12.28 Foreign-born -30.029 -32.063 -27.996 -7.081 -9.487 -4.675 -1.258 -3.663 1.146 Legal from same TPS country -24.929 -29.047 -20.811 -8.46 -11.396 -5.524 -3.149 -6.032 -0.265
